TITANIC Gold Bar Ship Sea Man Boat Captain Smith Sunk Atlantic Ocean C Old USA U • £8.50 (2025)

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Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (35,297) 99.7%, Location: Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 316201011330 TITANIC Gold Bar Ship Sea Man Boat Captain Smith Sunk Atlantic Ocean C Old USA U. The film also features an ensemble cast of Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton. He felt a love story interspersed with human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. RMS TITANIC Gold Bar Titanic Gold Layered Ingot Dimension 43mm x 30mm x 3mm Weights 1 oz The Front has a picture of the Great Ship. The Date it Sank "April 15th 1912" & Its name "Titanic" The Back has the words "TRAGEDY OF THE TITANIC" & "In Memory of Titanic Victims" with "1 OZ GOLD LAYERED .999" Comes in air-tight acrylic Deluxe Jewel Case. A Beautiful coin and Magnificent Keepsake Souvenir to Remediable The Worlds Most Famous Ship and those who perished on that sad day In Excellent Condition Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the ingot justice which looks a lot better in real life Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! I always combined postage on multiple items and I have a lot of Similar items to this on Ebay so why not > Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 140 Satisfied Customers Most of My Auctions Start at a Penny and I always combine postage so please check out my other items ! I Specialise in Unique Fun Items So For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! ### PLEASE DO NOT CLICK HERE ### Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! If You Have any Questions Please Mesage me thru ebay a nd I Will Reply ASAP All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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Click here for more information. Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Titanic The film poster shows a man and a woman hugging over a picture of the Titanic's bow. In the background is a partly cloudy sky and at the top are the names of the two lead actors. The middle has the film's name and tagline, and the bottom contains a list of the director's previous works, as well as the film's credits, rating, and release date. Theatrical release poster Directed by James Cameron Written by James Cameron Produced by James Cameron Jon Landau Starring Leonardo DiCaprio Kate Winslet Billy Zane Kathy Bates Frances Fisher Bernard Hill Jonathan Hyde Danny Nucci David Warner Bill Paxton Cinematography Russell Carpenter Edited by Conrad Buff James Cameron Richard A. Harris Music by James Horner Production companies Paramount Pictures[1][2] 20th Century Fox[1][2] Lightstorm Entertainment[1] Distributed by Paramount Pictures (United States and Canada) 20th Century Fox (International) Release dates November 1, 1997 (Tokyo) December 19, 1997 (United States) Running time 195 minutes[3] Country United States Language English Budget $200 million[4][5][6] Box office $2.264 billion[Note 1][14] Titanic is a 1997 American epic romantic disaster film directed, written, co-produced and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912. Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet star as members of different social classes who fall in love during the ship's maiden voyage. The film also features an ensemble cast of Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton. Cameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks. He felt a love story interspersed with human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began on September 1, 1995,[15] when Cameron shot footage of the Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios were used to recreate the sinking. The film was initially meant for 20th Century Fox, but a mounting budget and being behind schedule resulted in Fox asking Paramount Pictures for financial help; Paramount handled distribution in the United States and Canada, while 20th Century Fox released the film internationally. Titanic was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million. Filming took place from July 1996 to March 1997. Titanic was released on December 19, 1997. It was praised for its visual effects, performances (particularly those of DiCaprio, Winslet, and Gloria Stuart), production values, direction, score, cinematography, story, and emotional depth. Among other awards, it was nominated for 14 Academy Awards and won 11, including Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben-Hur (1959) for the most Academy Awards won by a film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's next film, Avatar (2009), surpassed it in 2010. Income from the initial theatrical release, retail video, and soundtrack sales and US broadcast rights exceeded $3.2 billion.[16] A number of re-releases have pushed the film's worldwide theatrical total to $2.264 billion, making it the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide after Avatar. In 2017, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot In 1996, aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, Brock Lovett and his team search the wreck of RMS Titanic. They recover a safe they hope contains a necklace with a large diamond known as the Heart of the Ocean. Instead, they find only a drawing of a young nude woman wearing the necklace. The sketch is dated April 14, 1912, the same day the Titanic struck the iceberg that caused it to sink.[Note 2] After viewing a television news story about the discovery, centenarian Rose Dawson Calvert contacts Lovett, identifying herself as the woman in the drawing. Hoping she can help locate the necklace, Lovett brings Rose aboard Keldysh, where she recounts her experiences as a Titanic passenger. In 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, her wealthy 30-year-old fiancé Caledon "Cal" Hockley, and her widowed mother Ruth board the Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose will resolve the family's financial problems and maintain their upper-class status by marrying Cal, but Rose is distraught over her loveless engagement. After the Titanic sets sail, she contemplates jumping from the stern railing, but Jack Dawson, a poor nomadic artist who won his passage in a poker game, coaxes her back onto the deck. They develop a friendship, and Jack soon admits that he has feelings for Rose. When Cal and Ruth object, Rose rejects Jack's attentions, but returns to him after realizing she has fallen in love. Rose brings Jack to her stateroom and requests he draw her nude, wearing only the Heart of the Ocean. After evading Cal's servant Lovejoy, they have sex in a Renault Towncar inside the cargo hold. Escaping to the forward deck, they witness the ship's collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers discussing its seriousness. Cal discovers Jack's sketch and an insulting note from Rose in his safe, along with the necklace. When Jack and Rose return to warn the others about the collision, Cal has Lovejoy slip the necklace into Jack's pocket to frame him for theft. Jack is confined in the master-at-arms' office. Cal puts the necklace into his own overcoat pocket. With the ship sinking, the crew prioritize women and children for evacuation. Rose finds and frees Jack, and they make it back to the deck, where Cal and Jack urge Rose to board a lifeboat. Intending to save himself, Cal lies that he will get Jack safely off the ship and wraps his overcoat around Rose. As her lifeboat is lowered, Rose jumps back onto the ship, unable to abandon Jack. Cal grabs Lovejoy's pistol and chases Jack and Rose, but they escape. Cal realizes the necklace is still in the coat he gave Rose. He poses as a lost child's father to board a lifeboat. As the flooded bow of the ship sinks, the stern rises; Jack and Rose desperately cling to the stern rail. The upended ship breaks in half, and the bow section sinks. The stern slams back onto the ocean, upends again and sinks. In the freezing water, Jack helps Rose onto a wood transom panel among the debris, buoyant enough only for one person, and makes her promise to survive and live her life to the fullest. Jack dies of cold shock, but Rose is among six people saved by the one returning lifeboat. RMS Carpathia rescues the survivors. Rose avoids Cal and her mother by hiding among the steerage passengers and giving her name as Rose Dawson. Still wearing Cal's overcoat, she discovers the necklace tucked inside the pocket. In the present, Rose says she heard that Cal committed suicide after losing his fortune in the 1929 Wall Street crash. Lovett abandons his search for the necklace. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose takes the Heart of the Ocean, which has been in her possession all along, and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep in her bed,[17] her photos on the dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died that night. Cast Fictional characters Leonardo DiCaprio (top, pictured in 2002), who portrayed Jack Dawson, and Kate Winslet (bottom, pictured in 2007), who portrayed Rose DeWitt Bukater Leonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson. Cameron said he needed the cast to feel they were really on the Titanic, to relive its liveliness, and "to take that energy and give it to Jack, ... an artist who is able to have his heart soar".[18] Jack is portrayed as an itinerant, poor orphan from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, who has travelled the world, including Paris. He wins two third-class tickets for the Titanic in a poker game and travels with his friend Fabrizio. He is attracted to Rose at first sight. Her fiancé's invitation to dine with them the next evening enables Jack to mix with the first-class passengers for a night. Cameron's original choice for the role was River Phoenix, however he died in 1993.[19] Though established actors like Matthew McConaughey, Chris O'Donnell, Billy Crudup, and Stephen Dorff were considered, Cameron felt they were too old for the part of a 20-year-old.[20][21] Tom Cruise was interested, but his asking price was too high.[21] Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role, but Leto refused to audition.[22] Jeremy Sisto did a series of screen tests with Winslet and three other actresses vying for the role of Rose.[23] DiCaprio, 21 years old at the time, was brought to Cameron's attention by casting director Mali Finn.[20] Initially, he did not want the role and refused to read his first romantic scene. Cameron said, "He read it once, then started goofing around, and I could never get him to focus on it again. But for one split second, a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest." Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio's acting ability and told him, "Look, I'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic. I'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want." Cameron envisioned the character as being like those played by James Stewart or Gregory Peck.[20][24] Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character, in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where 121 victims are buried, there is a grave labeled "J. Dawson". The producers did not know of the real J. Dawson until after the film was released.[25] Kate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater. Cameron said Winslet "had the thing that you look for" and that there was "a quality in her face, in her eyes" that he "just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her".[18] Rose is a 17-year-old girl from Philadelphia, who is forced into an engagement to 30-year-old Cal Hockley so she and her mother, Ruth, can maintain their high-class status after her father's death had left the family debt-ridden. Rose boards Titanic with Cal and Ruth, as a first-class passenger, and meets Jack. Winslet said of her character, "She has got a lot to give, and she's got a very open heart. And she wants to explore and adventure the world, but she [feels] that's not going to happen."[18] Gwyneth Paltrow, Winona Ryder, Claire Danes (who had previously worked with DiCaprio in Romeo + Juliet the previous year), Gabrielle Anwar, and Reese Witherspoon had been considered for the role.[20][26][27][28] When they turned it down, Winslet campaigned heavily for the role. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions. As with DiCaprio, casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron's attention. When looking for a Rose, Cameron described the character as "an Audrey Hepburn type" and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him.[20] After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him, that she whispered to Cameron, "He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him." Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed, "From Your Rose", and lobbied him by phone. "You don't understand!" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. "I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.[20] Billy Zane as Caledon "Cal" Hockley, Rose's arrogant and snobbish 30-year-old fiancé, who is the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune. He is resentful of Rose's affection for Jack. Cameron initially considered Michael Biehn, who he had previously collaborated with on The Terminator, Aliens, and The Abyss, for the role,[29] before offering it to Matthew McConaughey,[21] and Rob Lowe said he pursued it.[30] Frances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater, Rose's widowed mother, who arranges Rose's engagement to Cal to maintain her family's high-society status. Like many aristocratic passengers portrayed in the film, her disposition is elitist and frivolous. She loves her daughter but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage. She strongly dislikes Jack, even though he saved her daughter's life. Gloria Stuart as the modern-day Rose Dawson Calvert. Rose narrates the film in a framing device. Cameron stated, "In order to see the present and the past, I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [close to] 101 years, and she connects us in a way through history."[18] The 100-year-old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the "Heart of the Ocean" after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck. She shares the story of her time aboard the ship, and speaks about her relationship with Jack for the first time since the sinking. At 87, Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role.[21] Of casting Stuart, Cameron stated, "My casting director found her. She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties."[31] Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was, and Fay Wray was also considered for the role. "But [Stuart] was just so into it, and so lucid, and had such a great spirit. And I saw the connection between her spirit and [Winslet's] spirit," stated Cameron. "I saw this joie de vivre in both of them, that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it's the same person."[31] Bill Paxton as Brock Lovett, a treasure hunter looking for the "Heart of the Ocean" in the wreck of the Titanic in the present. Time and funding for his expedition are running out. He reflects at the film's conclusion that, despite thinking about Titanic for three years, he has never understood it until he hears Rose's story. Suzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert, Rose's granddaughter, who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns of her grandmother's romantic past with Jack Dawson. Danny Nucci as Fabrizio De Rossi, Jack's Italian best friend, who boards Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game. Fabrizio fails to board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship's funnels breaks and crashes into the water, crushing him and several other passengers to death. David Warner as Spicer Lovejoy, an ex-Pinkerton constable and Cal's English valet and bodyguard. He monitors Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack rescuing her. He dies when the Titanic splits in half, causing him to fall into a massive opening. Warner had appeared in the 1979 TV miniseries S.O.S. Titanic. Jason Barry as Tommy Ryan, an Irish third-class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio. Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch. Alexandrea Owens-Sarno as Coraline "Cora" Cartmell, a young third-class girl who dances with Jack at the Irish party. In a deleted scene, Cora and her family were drowned after they trapped at the third-class gate.[32] Historical characters Although not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events,[33] the film includes portrayals of various historical figures: The real Margaret Brown (right) providing Captain Arthur Henry Rostron with an award for his service in the rescue of Titanic's surviving passengers. Kathy Bates as Margaret "Molly" Brown. Brown is looked down upon by other first-class women, including Ruth, as "vulgar" and "new money". She is friendly to Jack and lends him a suit of evening clothes (bought for her son) when he is invited to dinner in the first-class dining saloon. She was dubbed "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" by historians because, with the support of other women, she commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens.[34] Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron's film. Reba McEntire was offered the role, but had to turn it down, because it conflicted with her touring schedule.[35] Victor Garber as Thomas Andrews: The ship's builder, Andrews is portrayed as a kind, decent man who is modest about his grand achievement. After the collision, he tries to convince the others, particularly Ismay, that it is a "mathematical certainty" that the ship will sink. He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first-class smoking room, lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic, this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat no.15 at approximately 1:40 a.m.[36] There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment.[36] It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then he continued assisting with the evacuation.[36] Crew of the Olympic, 1911. Left: First Officer William M. Murdoch. Right: Captain Edward J. Smith. Bernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith.[37] Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring. He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks, dying when the windows burst from the water pressure whilst he clings to the ship's wheel. There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat "B".[38] Jonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay, White Star Line's ignorant, boorish managing director. Ismay influences Captain Smith to go faster with the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention; while this appears in popular portrayals of the disaster, it is unsupported by evidence.[39][40] After the collision, he struggles to comprehend that his "unsinkable" ship is doomed. Ismay later boards Collapsible C (one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship) just before it is lowered. He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children had drowned. Eric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV, a first-class passenger and the richest man on the ship. The film depicts Astor and his 18-year-old wife Madeleine (Charlotte Chatton) as being introduced to Jack by Rose in the first-class dining saloon. During the introduction, Astor asks if Jack is connected to the "Boston Dawsons", a question Jack deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons. Astor is last seen as the Grand Staircase glass dome implodes and water surges in. Bernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV. The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that "women and machinery don't mix", and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship, though he is unaware that it was a suicide attempt. He is later seen offering to lead Jack and Rose to the remaining lifeboats during the sinking. Fox had portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember. Michael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim, a mining magnate traveling in first-class. He shows off his French mistress Madame Aubert (Fannie Brett) to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home. When Jack joins the other first-class passengers for dinner after his rescue of Rose, Guggenheim refers to him as a "bohemian". He is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking, saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman. Wallace Hartley. Titanic's bandmaster and violinist. Jonathan Evans-Jones as Wallace Hartley, the ship's bandmaster and violinist who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks. As the final plunge begins, he leads the band in a final performance of "Nearer, My God, to Thee", to the tune of Bethany,[41][42] and dies in the sinking. Mark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde,[37] the ship's chief officer, who lets Cal on board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms. Before he dies, he tries to get the boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle. After he freezes to death, Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe, which leads to her rescue. Ewan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch,[37] the officer in charge of the bridge when the Titanic struck the iceberg. During a rush for the lifeboats, Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan, as well as another passenger, in a momentary panic, then commits suicide by shooting himself in the head. When Murdoch's nephew Scott saw the film, he objected to his uncle's portrayal as damaging to Murdoch's heroic reputation.[43] A few months later, Fox vice-president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie, Scotland, where Murdoch lived, to deliver a personal apology, and also presented a £5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school's William Murdoch Memorial Prize.[44] Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary, but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the "women and children first" policy.[45] According to Cameron, his depiction of Murdoch is that of an "honorable man," not of a man "gone bad" or of a "cowardly murderer." He added, "I'm not sure you'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today. This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one. That says something about character and heroism."[46] Jonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller.[37] Lightoller took charge of the port side evacuation. The film depicts Lightoller informing Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water, and following the collision, suggesting the crew should begin boarding women and children to the lifeboats. He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order. He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses. Lightoller was the most senior officer to have survived the disaster. Film producer Kevin De La Noy as Third Officer Herbert Pitman,[37] who also survived the sinking and manning Lifeboat 5. Simon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall,[37] the officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking. He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares. Ioan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe,[37] the only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters. The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose. Edward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody,[37] the only junior officer to have died in the sinking. The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton. Moody is later shown following Murdoch's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead and informs Murdoch about the iceberg. He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A. James Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles, a second-class passenger and a Catholic priest from England. He is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship's final moments. Lew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor and Ida Straus. Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company, a former congressman from New York, and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission. During the sinking, the couple were offered seats on a lifeboat together. Isidor refused to go before all women and children have been evacuated, and urged his wife Ida to go ahead. Ida is portrayed refusing to board the lifeboat, saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor. They are last seen lying on their bed, embracing each other as water fills their stateroom. Martin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, a Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1. Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40. Situated at the forward end of the boat deck, these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard. On the night of the disaster, Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched, with 12 people aboard, including Duff-Gordon, his wife and her secretary. The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident. It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the "women and children first" policy, and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water. He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat's crew, which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe. The Duff-Gordons at the time (and his wife's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat; there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty, and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff-Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place (simply to fill it) after they had asked if they could get on. Duff-Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe. The British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff-Gordon's denial of bribing the crew, but maintained that, if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water, it might very well have been able to rescue some of them.[47][48] Rosalind Ayres as Lady Duff-Gordon, a world-famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo's wife. She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband. They never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped.[49][50][51] Rochelle Rose as Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes. The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters. Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon, she is kind, and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers. Scott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet, the lookout who saw the iceberg. Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6. Paul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens, one of the six quartermasters and at the ship's wheel at the time of collision. He is in charge of lifeboat 6. He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown. Martin East as Reginald Lee, the other lookout in the crow's nest. He survives the sinking. Gregory Cooke as Jack Phillips, the senior wireless operator whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal. Craig Kelly as Harold Bride, a junior wireless operator. Liam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin. The baker appears in the film helping Rose stand up after she falls, following her and Jack to the ship's stern, and finally hanging onto the ship's railing as it sinks, drinking brandy from a flask. According to the real Joughin's testimony, he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet. He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold, most likely thanks to alcohol.[52] In a deleted scene, he's shown throwing deckchairs overboard before taking a drink from his bottle.[53][54] Terry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell: Bell and his men worked throughout the sinking to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out. The film portrays Bell and all of the engineers as having died in the bowels of the Titanic, however there is evidence to suggest that at least some of the engineers were released to come on deck when the flooding became severe. Greaser Frederick Scott testified to seeing eight engineers between approximately 1:50 and 1:55 a.m. standing up against the electric crane on the starboard Boat Deck; by then, all the lifeboats had gone.[55] Cameos Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear, including Anatoly Sagalevich, the creator and pilot of the Mir self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle.[56] Van Ling portrayed Fang Lang; his backstory inspired Cameron to produce a documentary The Six, based on a group of Chinese survivors who survived the sinking.[57] Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society, who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.[58][59] Pre-production Writing and inspiration Director, writer and producer James Cameron (pictured in 2000) The story could not have been written better had it been fiction ...The juxtaposition of rich and poor, the gender roles played out unto death (women first), the stoicism and nobility of a bygone age, the magnificence of the great ship matched in scale only by the folly of the men who drove her hell-bent through the darkness. And above all the lesson: that life is uncertain, the future unknowable ... the unthinkable possible. —James Cameron[60][61] James Cameron has long had a fascination with shipwrecks, and for him Titanic was "the Mount Everest of shipwrecks".[62][63][64] He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had "a mental restlessness" to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. When an IMAX film, Titanica, was made from footage shot of the Titanic wreck, Cameron decided to seek Hollywood funding for his own expedition. It was "not because I particularly wanted to make the movie," Cameron said. "I wanted to dive to the shipwreck."[62] Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film,[65] met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as "Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic".[63][64] Cameron said the executives were unconvinced of the commercial potential, and had instead hoped for action scenes similar to his previous films.[20] They approved the project as they hoped for a long-term relationship with Cameron.[20][21][31] Cameron convinced 20th Century Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck,[65] and organized several dives over a period of two years.[60] He also convinced 20th Century Fox that shooting the real wreck for the film scenes, instead of simulating it with special effects, would provide value: "We can either do [the shots] with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money – or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck."[63] The crew shot at the wreck in the Atlantic Ocean 12 times in 1995. The work was risky, as the water pressure could kill the crew if there were a tiny flaw in the submersible structure.[21] Additionally, adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting footage.[21] During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic's hull, damaging both sub and ship, and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of the captain's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior, and the area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was damaged.[66] Descending to the site emphasized to the crew that the Titanic disaster was not simply a story but a real event with real loss of life. Cameron said: "Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it." He felt a "great mantle of responsibility" to convey the emotional message of the story, as he was aware there might never be another filmmaker to visit the wreck.[31] Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was "like a great novel that really happened", but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history.[60] The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy.[56] He believed that the romance of Jack and Rose would be the most engaging element: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss.[60] He said: "All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It's not a disaster film. It's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history."[31] After filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay.[65] He wanted to honor the people who died, and spent six months researching the Titanic's crew and passengers.[60] He created a detailed timeline of the events of the voyage and sinking and had it verified by historical experts.[63] From the beginning of the shoot, the team had "a very clear picture" of what happened on the ship. Cameron said "That set the bar higher in a way – it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you'd gone back in a time machine and shot it."[63] Cameron was influenced by the 1958 British film about Titanic, A Night to Remember, which he had seen as a youth. He liberally copied some dialogue and scenes, including the lively party of the passengers in steerage,[67] and the musicians playing on the deck during the sinking.[33] Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant.[60] While Winslet and Stuart believed Rose dies at the end of the film,[68][69] Cameron said "the answer has to be something you supply personally; individually".[17] Scale modeling A ship resembling the Titanic is being built at a port with clear skies and small waves. The reconstruction of Titanic. The blueprints were supplied by the original ship's builder and Cameron tried to make the ship as detailed and accurate as possible.[70][71] Harland & Wolff, Titanic's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were previously thought lost. For the ship's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch.[70] 20th Century Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of 17 million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was steel plating. Within was a 50-foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. The 60-foot 1/8th scale model of the stern section was designed by the naval architect Jay Kantola using plans of the Titanic's sister ship RMS Olympic.[71] Above the model was a 162-foot-tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.[56] The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly using photographs and plans from the Titanic's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard, though it was widened 30% compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plasterwork based on Titanic's original designs.[72] The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs.[73] Cameron hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail.[21] Production Principal photography began on July 31, 1996[15] at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the modern-day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh.[56] In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full-scale Titanic had been constructed.[56] The poop deck was built on a hinge that could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship's stern rose during the sinking.[74] For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber.[75] By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot.[74] Cameron built his Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north-to-south wind, which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction.[76] A full-time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912.[21] Despite this, several critics noted anachronisms in the film.[77][78] A pencil-drawing sketch depicting a woman with a somewhat stern face lying on a chair and pillow naked, only wearing a diamond necklace. From the breast down the picture is cut off. Cameron's sketch of Rose wearing the Heart of the Ocean. The scene was one of the first shot, as the main set was not ready.[31] Cameron sketched Jack's portrait of Rose; Winslet posed in a bathing suit.[79][80] Cameron felt the scene had a backdrop of repression and freedom: "You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It's kind of exhilarating for that reason," he said.[79][31] The sketching scene was DiCaprio and Winslet's first scene together. "It wasn't by any kind of design, although I couldn't have designed it better. There's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them," Cameron stated. "They had rehearsed together, but they hadn't shot anything together. If I'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot." Cameron said he and his crew "were just trying to find things to shoot" because the big set "wasn't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot." Cameron felt the final scene worked well.[31] The shoot was an arduous experience that "cemented Cameron's formidable reputation as 'the scariest man in Hollywood". He became known as an "uncompromising, hard-charging perfectionist" and a "300-decibel screamer, a modern-day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie-talkie, swooping down into people's faces on a 162ft crane".[81] Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m-gallon water tank in which the ship would sink. "There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you wouldn't believe," she said.[81] "'God damn it!' he would yell at some poor crew member, 'That's exactly what I didn't want!'"[81] Bill Paxton was familiar with Cameron's work ethic from his earlier experience, and said: "There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds."[81] The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him "Mij" (Jim spelled backwards).[81] In response to the criticism, Cameron said, "Film-making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics."[81] More than 800 crew members worked on the film.[82] On August 9, 1996, during the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an unknown person, suspected to be a crew member, put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.[20][83] It sent more than 50 people to the hospital.[83] Paxton and Cameron ate the soup and went to the hospital but Paxton decided to leave, telling Cameron "Jim, I'm not gonna hang out here, this is bedlam. I'm gonna ... wander back down to the set and just drink a case of beer."[84] "There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics," said actor Lewis Abernathy.[20] Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. "One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he'd been sniffing glue since he was four."[20][81] The Nova Scotia Department of Health confirmed that the soup had contained PCP on August 27, and the Halifax Regional Police Service announced a criminal investigation the next day. The investigation was closed in February 1999.[85] The person behind the poisoning was never caught.[68][86] The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160 (filming officially wrapped on March 23, 1997).[15] Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money".[86] Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set.[86] Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming.[87] Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged: I'm demanding, and I'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.[86] The costs of filming Titanic ballooned and eventually reached $200 million,[4][5][6] a bit over $1 million per minute of screen time.[88] 20th Century executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three-hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling 20th Century Fox, "You want to cut my movie? You're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You're going to have to kill me!"[20] The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment. The executives initially rejected Cameron's offer to forfeit his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely.[20] Worried about the mounting costs, 20th Century Fox wanted to find a partner studio to co-finance the film. 20th Century Fox first approached Universal Pictures as they had picked up the international distribution rights to Cameron's True Lies (1994) when production costs began to mount; however Universal Pictures would turn 20th Century Fox down. Instead, 20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures came together in May 1996 following the success both studios had collaborating together on the distribution for Mel Gibson's Braveheart (1995), and ultimately agreed to co-finance the film together and split the distribution rights.[89] In an effort to recoup their $135 million investment, 20th Century Fox sold the domestic rights to the film to Paramount Pictures in return for Paramount Pictures providing 20th Century Fox an additional $65 million for production, while retaining international rights; 20th Century Fox however would still be responsible for any further budget overruns going forward, but also retain all profits from any merchandise sold based on the film as part of the deal with Paramount Pictures.[90][91] Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. "... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more," he said. "As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They didn't force me to do it; they were glad that I did."[31] Amidst the film's successful box office run, a Fox executive, William Mechanic, commented that "Jim Cameron told us we could have an expensive bad movie or a more expensive potentially great movie. We made our judgment. And we made the best choice."[92] In July 2024, Cameron stated that it was actually co-producer Jon Landau who "bore the brunt of the studio pressure" when Titanic was being made.[93] According to Cameron, Landau "gave his all to provide the time and resources for me to make the film I saw in my head."[93] Post-production Effects Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects, and enlisted Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to continue the developments in digital technology he pioneered on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing.[94] Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45-foot-long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if "we're making a commercial for the White Star Line".[95] Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65-foot-long (20 m) model of the ship's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water.[94] For scenes set in the ship's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Brien's engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen.[96] In order to save money, the first-class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors.[97] The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First-Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.[98] The Titanic about to sink into the ocean, with the ship breaking into two parts and with smoke still coming out of the funnels. Unlike previous Titanic films, Cameron's retelling of the disaster showed the ship breaking into two pieces before sinking entirely. The scenes were an account of the moment's most likely outcome. An enclosed 5,000,000-US-gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel-reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744-foot-long (227 m) exterior of Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett's ROV traversing the wreck in the present.[56] The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000-US-gallon (1,300,000 L) tank,[99] where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.[70] The climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full-sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He "wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was".[21] When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized "by using computer-generated people for the dangerous falls".[21] A Linux-based operating system was utilized for the creation of the effects.[100] Editing Cameron said there were aspects of the Titanic story that seemed important in pre- and post-production but became less important as the film evolved. He omitted the SS Californian, the ship that was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. A scene involving the Californian was cut, according to Cameron, "because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self-contained." He said its omission was not "a compromise to mainstream filmmaking" but "about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film".[31] During the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the ending. In the original version, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose reveals that she had the Heart of the Ocean diamond all along but never sold it, to live on her own without Cal's money. She allows Brock to hold it but tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the scene, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience's melancholy after the Titanic's sinking.[101] Paxton agreed that his scene with Brock's epiphany and laugh was unnecessary, saying "I would have shot heroin to make the scene work better ... Our job was done by then ... If you're smart and you take the ego and the narcissism out of it, you'll listen to the film, and the film will tell you what it needs and what it does not need."[102] The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon.[103] The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and had Cal offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the Heart of the Ocean if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first-class dining room. Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a window; this is why Lovejoy has a gash later in the film. Test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.[103] Heart of the Ocean This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) "Heart of the Ocean" redirects here. For other uses, see Heart of the Ocean (disambiguation). For the Heart of the Ocean design, London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold[104] to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. The studio designed and produced three variations, very similar but unique and distinguishable in character. Two of them were used in the film while the third went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace and the Asprey necklace. The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds.[104] This design featured a much larger inverted pear-shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client[105] for $1.4 million (equivalent to $2.62 million in 2023), under the agreement that Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. Since then, this necklace has not been made available for public viewing. Soundtrack Main articles: Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture and Back to Titanic Cameron wrote Titanic while listening to the work of the Irish new-age musician Enya.[106] After Enya declined an invitation to compose for the film,[107] Cameron instead chose James Horner. The two had parted ways after a tumultuous working experience on Aliens,[108] but Titanic cemented a successful collaboration that lasted until Horner's death.[109] For the vocals heard throughout the film, Horner chose the Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as "Sissel". Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and particularly liked how she sang "Eg veit i himmerik ei borg" ("I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle"). He tried around 30 singers before choosing Sissel.[110] Horner wrote the end theme, "My Heart Will Go On", in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs in the film.[111] Céline Dion agreed to record a demo at the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie".[111] Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion".[21] The soundtrack was the best-selling album of 1998 with sales of over 27 million.[16] Release Initial screening Distribution for the film was split between Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; the former handling the distribution in the United States and Canada, and the latter handling the international release.[89] Both studios expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997.[112] The film was to be released on this date "to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better".[21] In April, Cameron said the film's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film on that date would not be possible.[21] The studios considered pushing the film to late July or the first week of August, but Harrison Ford, whose film Air Force One was to be released on July 25, is reported to have informed Paramount, which had produced his lucrative Indiana Jones and Jack Ryan franchises, that he would never work with them again if they released Titanic so close to his own film.[113] On May 29, 1997, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997.[82] "This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster." A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 "generated positive reviews" and "[c]hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [film]". This eventually led to more positive media coverage.[21] Cameron refused to hold the film's world premiere in Los Angeles.[91] Paramount disagreed with Cameron's decision, but 20th Century Fox acquiesced and went ahead and held the premiere on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival,[114][91] where reaction was described as "tepid" by The New York Times.[115] Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where "the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media".[21] Box office Including revenue from the 2012, 2017 and 2023 reissues, Titanic earned $674.3 million in North America and $1.583 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2.257 billion.[Note 1][14] It became the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, beating Jurassic Park (1993).[116] The film remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010.[117] On March 1, 1998,[118] it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide[119] and on the weekend April 13–15, 2012—a century after the original vessel's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release.[120] Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth-highest-grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation.[121] The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.[122] Titanic was the first foreign-language film to succeed in India, which claims to have the largest movie-going audience in the world.[123] A Hindustan Times report attributes this to the film's similarities and shared themes with most Bollywood films.[124] Initial theatrical run The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of Mouse Hunt, Scream 2 and the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. It would go on to surpass The Godfather Part III's record for having the highest Christmas Day gross, generating a total of $9.2 million. For its second weekend, the film made $35.6 million, making it the biggest December weekend gross, surpassing Scream 2.[125] By New Year's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. In just 44 days, it became the fastest film to approach the $300 million mark at the domestic box office, surpassing the former record held by Jurassic Park, which took 67 days to do so.[126] Titanic would hold this record until 1999 when it was taken by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.[127] Its highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut.[128][129] On March 14, it surpassed Star Wars as the highest-grossing film ever in North America.[130] It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film.[131] By April 1998, the film's number one spot would be overtaken by Lost in Space, dropping into second place.[132] The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998, with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188,[133] equivalent to $1140.3 million in 2023[134]. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080[135] and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.[136] Commercial analysis Before Titanic's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially since it was the most expensive film ever made at the time.[81][137][138][139] When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, "it was with massive forebodings", since the "people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs – because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making".[138] Cameron also thought he was "headed for disaster" at one point during filming. "We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty," he stated.[81] As the film neared release, "particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance". A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Cameron's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project" and that the film was "a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances".[81] It's hard to forget the director on the stage of the Shrine Auditorium in LA, exultant, pumping a golden Oscar statuette into the air and shouting: "I'm the king of the world!" As everyone knew, that was the most famous line in Titanic, exclaimed by Leonardo DiCaprio's character as he leaned into the wind on the prow of the doomed vessel. Cameron's incantation of the line was a giant "eff off", in front of a television audience approaching a billion, to all the naysayers, especially those sitting right in front of him. —Christopher Goodwin of The Times on Cameron's response to Titanic's criticism[81] When the film became a success, with an unprecedented box-office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers' emotions.[137] The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened,[138] and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43% in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million for each of its first 10 weekends,[140] and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million on weekdays.[138] 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week.[141] Although young women who saw the film several times and subsequently caused "Leo-Mania" were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all-time box office record,[142] other reports have attributed the film's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground-breaking special effects.[140][143] The Hollywood Reporter estimated that after a combined production and promotion cost of $487 million, the film turned a net profit of $1.4 billion, with a modern profit of as much as $4 billion after ancillary sources.[144] Titanic's impact on men has also been especially credited.[145][146][147] It is considered one of the films that make men cry,[145][146] with MSNBC's Ian Hodder stating that men admire Jack's sense of adventure and his ambitious behavior to win over Rose, which contributes to their emotional attachment to Jack.[145] The film's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: "I haven't cried like that since Titanic."[148] Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film "for 15-year-old girls" by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for teenage girls fails to consider the film's accomplishment: "that [this] grandiose, 3+ hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone—including teenage boys." Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy-targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. "It's this collection of elements—the history, the romance, the action—that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe," he stated. "Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It's a great movie for 15-year-old girls, but that doesn't mean it's not a great movie for everyone else too."[147] Quotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic's catchphrase "I'm the king of the world!" became one of the film industry's more popular quotations.[149][150] According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. "People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh", he said.[150] Cameron explained the film's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. "When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it," he said. "They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That's how Titanic worked."[151] Media Awareness Network stated, "The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5%. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20%."[21] The box office receipts "were even more impressive" when factoring in "the film's 3-hour-and-14-minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie's four showings". In response to this, "[m]any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3:30 am".[21] Titanic held the record for box office gross for 12 years.[152] Cameron's follow-up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross,[153][154] and did so in 2010.[117] Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, "Two-thirds of Titanic's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them" and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today" with "more screens and moviegoers" than ever before.[155] Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. "Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s."[153] In December 2009, Cameron had stated, "I don't think it's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord."[140] In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar's performance was easier to predict, saying "It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time,".[154] Author Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film's popularity "appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s – awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama."[156] Critical reception Initial Titanic garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film's cultural, historical, and political impacts.[156][157][158] On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 255 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A mostly unqualified triumph for James Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old-fashioned melodrama."[143] Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 35 critics, reports the film has "generally favorable reviews".[159] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service from 1982 to 2011 to earn the score.[160] With regard to the film's overall design, Roger Ebert stated: "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding ... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well." He credited the "technical difficulties" with being "so daunting that it's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion" and "found [himself] convinced by both the story and the sad saga".[161] He named it his ninth-best film of 1997.[162] On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received "two thumbs up" and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship's sinking; Ebert described the film as "a glorious Hollywood epic" and "well worth the wait," and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio "captivating".[163] James Berardinelli stated: "Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You don't just watch Titanic, you experience it."[164] It was named his second best film of 1997.[165] Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded: "To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the 'unsinkable' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood."[166] The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said: "You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it."[167] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as "a lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer-director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking."[166] Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that "Cameron's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind."[166] Adrian Turner of Radio Times awarded it four stars out of five, stating "Cameron's script wouldn't have sustained Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh for 80 minutes, but, somehow, he and his magical cast revive that old-style studio gloss for three riveting hours. Titanic is a sumptuous assault on the emotions, with a final hour that fully captures the horror and the freezing, paralysing fear of the moment. And there are single shots, such as an awesome albatross-like swoop past the steaming ship, when you sense Cameron hugging himself with the fun of it all."[168] Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. Some reviewers felt that while the visuals were spectacular, the story and dialogue were weak.[158] Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements.[169] Kenneth Turan's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, "What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close."[170] He later argued that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total.[171] Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, "The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [lead characters] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say."[172] Retrospective According to Dalin Rowell of /Film, "With complaints about its lengthy runtime, observations that certain characters could have easily fit onto pieces of floating furniture, and jokes about its melodramatic nature, Titanic is no stranger to modern-day criticism."[173] In 2002, filmmaker Robert Altman called it "the most dreadful piece of work I've ever seen in my entire life".[174] Similarly, French New Wave director and former Cahiers du Cinéma editor Jacques Rivette referred to it as "garbage" in a 1998 interview with Frédéric Bonnaud and was particularly critical of Winslet's performance, who he said was "unwatchable, the most slovenly girl to appear on the screen in a long, long time."[175] In 2003, the film topped a poll of "Best Film Endings",[176] but it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as "the worst movie of all time".[177] In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport-Hines said, "Cameron's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered."[178] The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings.[179] In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film.[180] Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. "What really irks me ...," he said, "are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it." Willcock stated, "I obviously don't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy."[139] In 1998, Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan's review in particular, by writing "Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off. They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3-hour and 14-minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion." Cameron emphasized that people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were "celebrating their own essential humanity" by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally "incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless – and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric" and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. "Turan mistakes archetype for cliché," he said. "I don't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration."[181] In 2000, Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that "the critical knives were out long before James Cameron's Titanic was complete. Spiralling costs that led to it becoming the most expensive motion picture of the 20th Century, and a cast without any big stars seemed to doom the film before release. But box office and audience appreciation proved Cameron right and many critics wrong." He added that "the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy" and that "when you consider that [the film] tops a bum-numbing three-hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron".[182] Empire eventually reinstated its original five-star rating of the film, commenting: "It should be no surprise[,] then[,] that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet's favourite film. Ever."[183] The film's climax has sparked many debates over the years on whether both Jack and Rose should have been able to fit on the floating door and survive, becoming among the most talked about aspects of the film.[184] Cameron has stated he often gets asked about the scene and has spoken about and tested it numerous times; one early test said they could not,[185] while another in advance of the film's 25th anniversary, said it was possible but unlikely and depended on numerous variables.[186] In 2017, on the 20th anniversary of its release, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".[187] It was listed among the 100 best films in an Empire poll and in a later poll of members of the film industry.[188][189] In 2021, Dalin Rowell of /Film ranked it the third-best film of Cameron's career, stating that it is "easily one of his best films, simply because it defied the odds", and considering it "a legitimately remarkable achievement — one that, despite its large budget, has a humble, earnest center. Even with all of the jokes the Internet loves to throw its way, Titanic demonstrates that Cameron is truly capable of everything he can imagine."[173] Accolades Main article: List of accolades received by Titanic At the Golden Globes, Titanic won Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song.[190] Winslet and Stuart were also nominated.[191] The film garnered fourteen Academy Award nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz's All About Eve[192] and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song.[193] Winslet, Stuart and the make-up artists were nominated, but lost to Helen Hunt in As Good as It Gets, Kim Basinger in L.A. Confidential and Men in Black.[194][195] Titanic was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben-Hur (1959).[196] The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King matched the record in 2004.[197] Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as four Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.[198][199] The soundtrack became the best-selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, spending sixteen weeks at number-one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone.[200] It was also the best-selling album of 1998 in the US.[201] "My Heart Will Go On" won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television. Titanic also won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year.[202] It eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty-seven nominations from various award-giving bodies around the world. The book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times' bestseller list for several weeks, "the first time that such a tie-in book had achieved this status".[21] Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute's award-winning 100 Years ... series six times. AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Rank Source Notes Thrills 25 [203] A list of the top 100 thrilling films in American cinema, compiled in 2001. Passions 37 [204] A list of the top 100 love stories in American cinema, compiled in 2002. Songs 14 [205] A list of the top 100 songs in American cinema, compiled in 2004. Titanic ranked 14th for Céline Dion's "My Heart Will Go On". Movie quotes 100 [149] A list of the top 100 film quotations in American cinema, compiled in 2005. Titanic ranked 100th for Jack Dawson's yell of "I'm the king of the world!" Movies 83 [206] A 2007 (10th anniversary) edition of 1997's list of the 100 best films of the past century. Titanic was not eligible when the original list was released. AFI's 10 Top 10 6 [207] The 2008 poll consisted of the top ten films in ten different genres. Titanic ranked as the sixth-best epic film. Home media Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS on September 1, 1998.[208] More than $50 million was spent to market the home video release of the film.[209] Both VHS formats were also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. In the first 3 months, the film sold 25 million copies in North America with a total sales value of $500 million, becoming the best selling live-action video, beating Independence Day.[16] In that time, it sold 58 million copies worldwide, outselling The Lion King for a total worldwide revenue of $995 million.[16] By March 2005, the film has sold 8 million DVD and 59 million VHS units.[210] In the United Kingdom, the film sold 1.1 million copies on its first day of release, making it the country's fastest-selling home video release. It would hold this record until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in May 2002 when that film sold 1.2 million home video units during its first day.[211] Within the first week of release, Titanic quickly beat The Full Monty, selling a total of 1.8 million home video copies.[212] NBC acquired the US television broadcast rights for $30 million, which was considered a bargain.[16] A DVD version was released on August 31, 1999, in a widescreen-only (non-anamorphic) single-disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best-selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies.[213] At the time, less than 5% of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. "When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now," said Meagan Burrows, Paramount's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film's DVD performance even more impressive.[213] Titanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005, when a three-disc Special Collector's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, a 6.1 DTS-ES Discrete surround sound mix and various special features. In PAL regions, two-disc and four-disc variants were released, marketed as the Special Edition and Deluxe Collector's Edition respectively. They were released in the United Kingdom on November 7, 2005. A limited 5-disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was also only released in the United Kingdom with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set.[139] In 2007, for the film's tenth anniversary, a 10th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD, which consists of the first two discs from the three-disc 2005 set containing the movie and the special features on those discs.[214] The film was released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on September 10, 2012.[215] The 3D presentation of the film is split over two discs and is also THX-certified. Special features on another disc included many of those featured on the 2005 Special Collector's Edition DVD along with two new documentaries titled "Reflections on Titanic" and "Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron."[216] The latter aired on National Geographic on April 9, 2012, and was executively produced by Cameron.[217] A 4K release of the film was released on December 5, 2023, on both digital and Ultra HD Blu-ray.[218][219][220][221] Re-releases 3D conversion A 2012 3D re-release was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration.[222] The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D.[223] Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process.[224] The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose's view of the night sky at sea on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night-sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by the astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.[225] An accurate view of the Milky Way was used to replace Rose's view of the moonless night sky at sea, as in this photo from Paranal Observatory. The view was adjusted to match the North Atlantic at 4:20 am on April 15, 1912. The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance,[226][227] and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days before the centenary of Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.[228][229][230] Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3+1⁄2 stars out of 4, explaining he found it "pretty damn dazzling". He said, "The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule."[231] Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, "For once, the visuals in a 3-D movie don't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive."[232] Richard Corliss of Time, who was very critical in 1997, remained in the same mood: "I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged." In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the "careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels."[233] Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking "whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's 3-D conversion, and the answer to that is: They aren't." She added that the "3-D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition."[234] The film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place behind The Hunger Games and American Reunion.[235][236] Outside North America it earned $35.2 million, finishing second,[237] and it improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million.[238] China has proven to be its most successful territory, where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day,[239] going on to earn a record-breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run.[238] The reissue earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and the United States.[240] With a worldwide box office of nearly $350 million, the 3D re-release of Titanic remains the highest grossing re-released film of all time, ahead of The Lion King, Star Wars, and Avatar.[241] The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent-based special effects.[242][243][244] 20th anniversary For the 20th anniversary of the film, Titanic was re-released in cinemas in Dolby Vision (in both 2D and 3D) for one week beginning December 1, 2017.[245] 25th anniversary Titanic was re-released in theaters by Paramount domestically and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (through the 20th Century Studios and Buena Vista International labels) internationally on February 10, 2023, in a remastered 3D 4K HDR render, with high frame rate, as part of the film's 25th anniversary. For this version, the international prints update 20th Century's logo with the studio's current name, as a result of Disney's 2019 acquisition of the studio.[246] Titanic Live Titanic Live was a live performance of James Horner's original score by a 130-piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film.[247][non-primary source needed] In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered.[248] Other media In 1998, an official tie-in computer game was released, titled James Cameron's Titanic Explorer.[249] The educational game covered the history of the vessel's construction, maiden voyage and sinking, as well as the discovery and exploration of the wreck. The game included deleted footage from the film and extensive 360-degree video footage of the film's sets.[250] In 2020, a board game based on the film, titled Titanic: The Game, was released by Spin Master Games.[251] See also List of Academy Award records List of films by box office admissions Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture List of films about the Titanic Britannic (film) Notes The totals given for Titanic at Box Office Mojo and The Numbers are both incorrect. Box Office Mojo has been plagued by errors for re-released films since the site was overhauled in 2019, whereby it often double-counts older grosses, as is the case for Titanic. As of 2019, Box Office Mojo correctly recorded that Titanic had grossed $1.843 billion on its original release, $344 million from its 3D reissue in 2012, and a further $692,000 from a limited release in 2017 for a lifetime total of $2.187 billion.[7] Following a limited re-release in 2020, Box Office Mojo incorrectly added $7 million to the original release total.[8] By the end of 2021, Box Office Mojo had corrected the original release total, but added the $7 million figure to both the 2012 and 2017 reissue totals, incorrectly increasing the lifetime total by $14 million to $2.202 billion.[9] At the beginning of 2023, Box Office Mojo corrected the total for the 2017 reissue, bringing the lifetime gross down $2.195 billion, but retained the error in the 2012 reissue.[10] The Numbers also has an incorrect figure recorded for the lifetime gross. The Numbers does not log individual releases, but had the lifetime total recorded as $2.186 billion in September 2014 (roughly equating to $1.843 billion for the original release and $343.6 million for the 3D reissue).[11] A couple of weeks later, The Numbers increased the lifetime gross to $2.208 billion, without explanation.[12] Prior to the 2023 re-release, the totals at both trackers were inflated above the true figure. For clarity, Titanic earned $1.843 billion on its original release, $344 million from its 2012 reissue, $691,642 from the 2017 reissue, and $71,352 in 2020, for a lifetime total of $2,187,687,082 from the first four releases. Along with the $70.2 million grossed from the 25th anniversary re-release in 2023,[13] the lifetime total for Titanic stands at $2,257,844,554 as of May 22, 2023. Although the Titanic hit the iceberg on April 14, it did not sink until the early hours of April 15. References "Titanic (1997)". Film & TV Database. British Film Institute. Archived from the original on January 14, 2009. Retrieved July 29, 2011. "Titanic". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. American Film Institute. Archived from the original on September 15, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2018. "TITANIC (12)". British Board of Film Classification. November 14, 1997. Archived from the original on April 27, 2021. Retrieved November 8, 2014. Garrett, Diane (April 20, 2007). "Big-budget bang-ups". Variety. Archived from the original on May 24, 2024. Retrieved November 16, 2009. Wyatt, Justin; Vlesmas, Katherine (1999). "The Drama of Recoupment: On the Mass Media Negotiation of Titanic". In Kevin S. Sandler; Gaylyn Studlar (eds.). Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. pp. 29–45. Welkos, Robert W. (February 11, 1998). "The $200-Million Lesson of 'Titanic'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 15, 2012. Retrieved December 12, 2009. "Titanic (1997)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 27, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019. 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"The 70th Academy Awards (1998) Nominees and Winners". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on October 1, 2014. Retrieved November 19, 2011. "'Titanic' ties Oscar record with 11". Daily Press. March 24, 1998. p. 2. Archived from the original on September 3, 2022. Retrieved September 3, 2022 – via Newspapers.com. Open access icon Garner, Chris (March 24, 1998). "A 'Titanic' winner". Gannett News Service. Iowa City Press-Citizen. p. 17. Archived from the original on May 6, 2023. Retrieved May 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com. Open access icon "'Titanic' vs. 'Ben-Hur'". The New York Times. March 27, 1998. Archived from the original on March 8, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2016. Germain, David (March 1, 2004). "'Rings' ties record with its 11 Oscars". The Associated Press. Corpus Christi Caller-Times. p. 2. Archived from the original on September 3, 2022. Retrieved September 3, 2022 – via Newspapers.com. 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Archived from the original on August 7, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2021. Further reading Ballard, Robert (1987). The Discovery of the Titanic. Canada: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-67174-3. Cameron, Stephen (1998). Titanic: Belfast's Own. Ireland: Wolfhound Press. ISBN 978-0-86327-685-9. Frakes, Randall (1998). Titanic: James Cameron's Illustrated Screenplay. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-095307-2. Lubin, David M. (1999). Titanic. BFI Modern Classics. London: BFI Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85170-760-0. Lynch, Donald (1992). Titanic: An Illustrated History. New York: Madison Press Books. ISBN 978-0-7868-6401-0. Majoor, Mireille; James Cameron (2003). Titanic: Ghosts of the Abyss. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-1-895892-31-4. Marsh, Ed W.; Kirkland, Douglas (1998). James Cameron's Titanic. London: Boxtree. ISBN 978-0-7522-2404-6. OCLC 43745407. Molony, Senan (2005). Titanic: A Primary Source History. Canada: Gareth Stevens. ISBN 978-0-8368-5980-5. Parisi, Paula (1998). Titanic and the Making of James Cameron. London: Orion. ISBN 978-0-7528-1799-6. Archived from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved October 29, 2020. Sandler, Kevin S.; Studlar, Gaylyn, eds. (1999). Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2669-0. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Titanic (1997 film). Wikiquote has quotations related to Titanic (1997 film). Official website Titanic at IMDb Titanic at the TCM Movie Database Titanic at AllMovie Titanic at The Numbers Screenplay of Titanic at The Internet Movie Script Database Paramount Movies - Titanic YouTube video detailing model construction on YouTube vte Yearly highest-grossing films in the United States Films listed as number-one by in-year release 1970s–1980s Star Wars (1977)Grease (1978)Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)The Empire Strikes Back (1980)Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)Return of the Jedi (1983)Beverly Hills Cop (1984)Back to the Future (1985)Top Gun (1986)Three Men and a Baby (1987)Rain Man (1988)Batman (1989) 1990s−2000s Home Alone (1990)Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)Aladdin (1992)Jurassic Park (1993)Forrest Gump (1994)Toy Story (1995)Independence Day (1996)Titanic (1997)Saving Private Ryan (1998)Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999)How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000)Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (2001)Spider-Man (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)Shrek 2 (2004)Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006)Spider-Man 3 (2007)The Dark Knight (2008)Avatar (2009) 2010s−2020s Toy Story 3 (2010)Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2011)The Avengers (2012)The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013)American Sniper (2014)Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015)Rogue One (2016)Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017)Black Panther (2018)Avengers: Endgame (2019)Bad Boys for Life (2020)Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021)Top Gun: Maverick (2022)Barbie (2023) List of highest-grossing films in the United States and Canada vte Titanic First class facilitiesSecond and Third class facilitiesGrand StaircaseAnimals aboard Sinking Iceberg that sank the TitanicChanges in safety practicesLifeboats Lifeboat No. 1British inquiryUnited States inquiryWreck of the TitanicLegends and mythsConspiracy theories Deck officers Edward J. Smith (Captain)Henry Tingle Wilde (Chief Officer)William McMaster Murdoch (First Officer)Charles H. Lightoller (Second Officer)Herbert Pitman (Third Officer)Joseph G. Boxhall (Fourth Officer)Harold G. Lowe (Fifth Officer)James Paul Moody (Sixth Officer)Joseph Bell (Machine Room Manager) Crew members Frederick BarrettHarold BrideWilliam Denton CoxSid DanielsFrank Oliver Evans Frederick FleetLuigi GattiRobert HichensViolet JessopArchie JewellCharles JoughinReginald LeeEvelyn MarsdenWilliam MintramJack PhillipsFrank Winnold PrenticeArthur John PriestGeorge Symons Musicians Wallace HartleyJohn Wesley Woodward Passengers Fatalities Allison familyThomas AndrewsJohn Jacob Astor IVDavid John BowenArchibald ButtThomas BylesRoderick ChisholmWalter Donald DouglasAnnie FunkJacques FutrelleSidney Leslie GoodwinBenjamin GuggenheimJohn HarperHenry B. HarrisWallace HartleyCharles Melville HaysAnn Elizabeth IshamEdward Austin KentJoseph Philippe Lemercier LarocheFrancis Davis MilletHarry Markland MolsonClarence MooreEino Viljami PanulaEmily RyersonW. T. SteadIda StrausIsidor StrausJohn B. ThayerFrank M. Warren Sr.George D. WickGeorge Dunton WidenerHarry Elkins WidenerDuane WilliamsGeorge Henry Wright Survivors Rhoda AbbottTrevor AllisonLillian AsplundMadeleine AstorRuth BeckerLawrence BeesleyKarl BehrDickinson BishopMauritz Håkan Björnström-SteffanssonElsie BowermanFrancis BrowneMargaret "Molly" BrownHelen Churchill CandeeCharlotte Drake CardezaLucile CarterGladys CherryMillvina DeanSir Cosmo Duff-GordonLucy, Lady Duff-GordonDorothy GibsonArchibald Gracie IVFrank John William GoldsmithEdith HaismanHenry S. HarperEva HartMargaret Bechstein HaysMasabumi HosonoJ. Bruce IsmayEleanor Ileen JohnsonLouise KinkLouise LarocheMargaret MannionMichel Marcel NavratilAlfred NourneyArthur Godfrey PeuchenJane QuickWinnifred QuickEdith RosenbaumNoël Leslie, Countess of RothesEmily RyersonAgnes SandströmBeatrice SandströmFrederic Kimber SewardEloise Hughes SmithJack ThayerMarian ThayerBarbara WestElla Holmes WhiteR. Norris WilliamsMarie Grice Young Monuments and memorials Australia Bandstand (Ballarat) United Kingdom Engine Room Heroes (Liverpool)Engineers (Southampton)Musicians (Southampton)Titanic (Belfast)Orchestra (Liverpool) United States Straus Park (New York City)Titanic (New York City)Titanic (Washington, D.C.)Butt–Millet Memorial Fountain (Washington, D.C.) Popular culture (cultural legacy) Books The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility (1898)A Night to Remember (book)Polar the Titanic Bear Films Saved from the Titanic (1912)In Nacht und Eis (1912)La hantise (1912)Atlantic (1929)Atlantik (1929)Titanic (1943)Titanic (1953)A Night to Remember (1958)The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1964)Raise the Titanic (1980)Secrets of the Titanic (1986)Titanica (1992)Titanic (1997)The Chambermaid on the Titanic (1997)The Legend of the Titanic (1999)Titanic: The Legend Goes On (2000)The Boy Who Saw the Iceberg (2000)Ghosts of the Abyss (2003)Tentacolino (2004)Titanic II (2010)The Six (2021)Titanic 666 (2022)Unsinkable (2024) Television "A Night to Remember" (1956)S.O.S. Titanic (1979)Titanic: The Complete Story (1994)Titanic (1996 miniseries)No Greater Love (1996)"A Flight to Remember" (Futurama) (1999)Titanic (2012 miniseries)Titanic: Blood and Steel (2012)Saving the Titanic (2012)Titanic: The Aftermath (2012) Theater The Berg (1929) The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960 musical)Titanic (1974) Titanic (1997 musical) Music "The Titanic (It Was Sad When That Great Ship Went Down)" (folk song)The Sinking of the Titanic (music composition)Titanic (soundtrack album)Back to Titanic (soundtrack album)"My Heart Will Go On" (song)"Nearer, My God, to Thee" (song)Titanique (musical parody)"Dance Band on the Titanic" (song)"Titanic" (song)Titanic Requiem (music composition)"Tempest" (song)Titanic Rising (album) Video games Search for the Titanic (1989)Titanic: Adventure Out of Time (1996)Titanic: Honor and Glory (TBA) Museums and exhibitions SeaCity Museum (Southampton)Titanic Museum (Branson, Missouri)Titanic Museum (Pigeon Forge, Tennessee)Maritime Museum of the Atlantic (Halifax)Titanic Belfast Places Titanic (Canada)Titanic CanyonTitanic Quarter, BelfastCape Race, NewfoundlandFairview Lawn CemeteryMount Olivet Cemetery (Halifax, Nova Scotia)Arrol GantryTitanic, Oklahoma Related Ships RMS BalticRMS OlympicHMHS BritannicSS Mount TempleRMS CarpathiaSS CalifornianCS Mackay-BennettSS BirmaSS FrankfurtReplica Titanic Titanic IIRomandisea Titanic Law RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial ActAgreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic Others White Star LineDavid BlairHarold CottamHerbert HaddockStanley LordArthur RostronTitanic Historical SocietyTitanic International SocietyEncyclopedia TitanicaHalomonas titanicaeWomen and children firstRobert BallardLa Circassienne au BainTitan submersible implosion Category vte James Cameron FilmographyUnrealized projectsAwards and nominationsBibliography Films directed Feature Piranha II: The Spawning (1982)The Terminator (1984)Aliens (1986)The Abyss (1989)Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)True Lies (1994)Titanic (1997)Avatar (2009)Avatar: The Way of Water (2022)Avatar: Fire and Ash (2025)Avatar 4 (2029) Short Xenogenesis (1978)T2-3D: Battle Across Time (1996) Documentaries Expedition: Bismarck (2002)Ghosts of the Abyss (2003)Aliens of the Deep (2005) Films written Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)Strange Days (1995)Alita: Battle Angel (2019, also produced)Terminator: Dark Fate (2019, also produced) Produced only Solaris (2002) TV series produced Series Dark Angel (2000–02)True Lies (2023) Documentaries Years of Living Dangerously (2014)Secrets of the Whales (2021)Secrets of the Octopus (2024) Related articles Lightstorm EntertainmentDigital DomainDeepsea ChallengerPristimantis jamescameroniThe Abyss: Incident at Europa Category Awards for Titanic vte Academy Award for Best Picture 1927–1950 Wings (1927–1928)The Broadway Melody (1928–1929)All Quiet on the Western Front (1929–1930)Cimarron (1930–1931)Grand Hotel (1931–1932)Cavalcade (1932–1933)It Happened One Night (1934)Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)The Great Ziegfeld (1936)The Life of Emile Zola (1937)You Can't Take It with You (1938)Gone with the Wind (1939)Rebecca (1940)How Green Was My Valley (1941)Mrs. Miniver (1942)Casablanca (1943)Going My Way (1944)The Lost Weekend (1945)The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)Gentleman's Agreement (1947)Hamlet (1948)All the King's Men (1949)All About Eve (1950) 1951–1975 An American in Paris (1951)The Greatest Show on Earth (1952)From Here to Eternity (1953)On the Waterfront (1954)Marty (1955)Around the World in 80 Days (1956)The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957)Gigi (1958)Ben-Hur (1959)The Apartment (1960)West Side Story (1961)Lawrence of Arabia (1962)Tom Jones (1963)My Fair Lady (1964)The Sound of Music (1965)A Man for All Seasons (1966)In the Heat of the Night (1967)Oliver! (1968)Midnight Cowboy (1969)Patton (1970)The French Connection (1971)The Godfather (1972)The Sting (1973)The Godfather Part II (1974)One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) 1976–2000 Rocky (1976)Annie Hall (1977)The Deer Hunter (1978)Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)Ordinary People (1980)Chariots of Fire (1981)Gandhi (1982)Terms of Endearment (1983)Amadeus (1984)Out of Africa (1985)Platoon (1986)The Last Emperor (1987)Rain Man (1988)Driving Miss Daisy (1989)Dances with Wolves (1990)The Silence of the Lambs (1991)Unforgiven (1992)Schindler's List (1993)Forrest Gump (1994)Braveheart (1995)The English Patient (1996)Titanic (1997)Shakespeare in Love (1998)American Beauty (1999)Gladiator (2000) 2001–present A Beautiful Mind (2001)Chicago (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)Million Dollar Baby (2004)Crash (2005)The Departed (2006)No Country for Old Men (2007)Slumdog Millionaire (2008)The Hurt Locker (2009)The King's Speech (2010)The Artist (2011)Argo (2012)12 Years a Slave (2013)Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014)Spotlight (2015)Moonlight (2016)The Shape of Water (2017)Green Book (2018)Parasite (2019)Nomadland (2020)CODA (2021)Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022)Oppenheimer (2023) vte Academy Award for Best Sound Editing Sound Effects 1963–1967 Walter Elliott - It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963)Norman Wanstall - Goldfinger (1964)Treg Brown - The Great Race (1965)Gordon Daniel - Grand Prix (1966)John Poyner - The Dirty Dozen (1967) Sound Effects Editing 1982–1999 Charles L. Campbell and Ben Burtt - E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)Jay Boekelheide - The Right Stuff (1983)Kay Rose - The River (1984)Charles L. Campbell and Robert Rutledge - Back to the Future (1985)Don Sharpe - Aliens (1986)Stephen Hunter Flick and John Pospisil - RoboCop (1987)Charles L. Campbell and Louis Edemann - Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988)Ben Burtt and Richard Hymns - Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)Cecelia Hall and George Watters II - The Hunt for Red October (1990)Gary Rydstrom and Gloria Borders - Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)Tom McCarthy and David E. Stone - Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992)Gary Rydstrom and Richard Hymns - Jurassic Park (1993)Stephen Hunter Flick - Speed (1994)Lon Bender and Per Hallberg - Braveheart (1995)Bruce Stambler - The Ghost and the Darkness (1996)Tom Bellfort and Christopher Boyes - Titanic (1997)Gary Rydstrom and Richard Hymns - Saving Private Ryan (1998)Dane Davis - The Matrix (1999) Sound Editing 2000–2019 Jon Johnson - U-571 (2000)George Watters II and Christopher Boyes - Pearl Harbor (2001)Mike Hopkins and Ethan Van der Ryn - The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)Richard King - Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003)Michael Silvers and Randy Thom - The Incredibles (2004)Mike Hopkins and Ethan Van der Ryn - King Kong (2005)Bub Asman and Alan Robert Murray - Letters from Iwo Jima (2006)Karen Baker Landers and Per Hallberg - The Bourne Ultimatum (2007)Richard King - The Dark Knight (2008)Paul N. J. Ottosson - The Hurt Locker (2009)Richard King - Inception (2010)Eugene Gearty and Philip Stockton - Hugo (2011)Per Hallberg and Karen Baker Landers - Skyfall / Paul N. J. Ottosson - Zero Dark Thirty (2012)Glenn Freemantle - Gravity (2013)Alan Robert Murray and Bub Asman - American Sniper (2014)Mark Mangini and David White - Mad Max: Fury Road (2015)Sylvain Bellemare - Arrival (2016)Richard King and Alex Gibson - Dunkirk (2017)John Warhurst and Nina Hartstone - Bohemian Rhapsody (2018)Donald Sylvester - Ford v Ferrari (2019) vte Academy Award for Best Visual Effects 1963–1980 Emil Kosa Jr. – Cleopatra (1963)Peter Ellenshaw, Eustace Lycett, and Hamilton Luske – Mary Poppins (1964)John Stears – Thunderball (1965)Art Cruickshank – Fantastic Voyage (1966)L. B. Abbott – Doctor Dolittle (1967)Stanley Kubrick – 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)Robie Robertson – Marooned (1969)A. D. Flowers and L. B. Abbott – Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970)Alan Maley, Eustace Lycett, and Danny Lee – Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971)L. B. Abbott and A. D. Flowers – The Poseidon Adventure (1972)Frank Brendel, Glen Robinson, and Albert Whitlock – Earthquake (1974)Albert Whitlock and Glen Robinson – The Hindenburg (1975)Carlo Rambaldi, Glen Robinson, and Frank Van der Veer – King Kong (1976)John Stears, John Dykstra, Richard Edlund, Grant McCune, and Robert Blalack – Star Wars (1977)Les Bowie, Colin Chilvers, Denys Coop, Roy Field, Derek Meddings, and Zoran Perisic – Superman (1978)H. R. Giger, Carlo Rambaldi, Brian Johnson, Nick Allder, and Dennis Ayling – Alien (1979)Brian Johnson, Richard Edlund, Dennis Muren, and Bruce Nicholson – The Empire Strikes Back (1980) 1981–2000 Richard Edlund, Kit West, Bruce Nicholson, and Joe Johnston – Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)Carlo Rambaldi, Dennis Muren, and Kenneth F. Smith – E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)Richard Edlund, Dennis Muren, Ken Ralston, and Phil Tippett – Return of the Jedi (1983)Dennis Muren, Michael J. McAlister, Lorne Peterson, and George Gibbs – Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)Ken Ralston, Ralph McQuarrie, Scott Farrar, and David Berry – Cocoon (1985)Robert Skotak, Stan Winston, John Richardson, and Suzanne M. Benson – Aliens (1986)Dennis Muren, Bill George, Harley Jessup, and Kenneth F. Smith - Innerspace (1987)Ken Ralston, Richard Williams, Edward Jones, and George Gibbs – Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988)John Bruno, Dennis Muren, Hoyt Yeatman, and Dennis Skotak – The Abyss (1989)Eric Brevig, Rob Bottin, Tim McGovern, and Alex Funke – Total Recall (1990)Dennis Muren, Stan Winston, Gene Warren Jr., and Robert Skotak – Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)Ken Ralston, Doug Chiang, Douglas Smythe, and Tom Woodruff Jr. – Death Becomes Her (1992)Dennis Muren, Stan Winston, Phil Tippett, and Michael Lantieri – Jurassic Park (1993)Ken Ralston, George Murphy, Stephen Rosenbaum, and Allen Hall – Forrest Gump (1994)Scott E. Anderson, Charles Gibson, Neal Scanlan, and John Cox – Babe (1995)Volker Engel, Douglas Smith, Clay Pinney, and Joe Viskocil – Independence Day (1996)Robert Legato, Mark Lasoff, Thomas L. 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Icebergs are found in the oceans surrounding Antarctica, in the seas of the Arctic and subarctic, in Arctic fjords, and in lakes fed by glaciers. Origin of icebergs Antarctic icebergs Antarctica Map of Antarctica highlighting the major geographic regions, ice sheets, and sites of several research stations. Antarctica Iceberg in the waters off Antarctica. Icebergs of the Antarctic calve from floating ice shelves and are a magnificent sight, forming huge, flat “tabular” structures. A typical newly calved iceberg of this type has a diameter that ranges from several kilometres to tens of kilometres, a thickness of 200–400 metres (660–1,320 feet), and a freeboard, or the height of the “berg” above the waterline, of 30–50 metres (100–160 feet). The mass of a tabular iceberg is typically several billion tons. Floating ice shelves are a continuation of the flowing mass of ice that makes up the continental ice sheet. Floating ice shelves fringe about 30 percent of Antarctica’s coastline, and the transition area where floating ice meets ice that sits directly on bedrock is known as the grounding line. Under the pressure of the ice flowing outward from the centre of the continent, the ice in these shelves moves seaward at 0.3–2.6 km (0.2–1.6 miles) per year. The exposed seaward front of the ice shelf experiences stresses from subshelf currents, tides, and ocean swell in the summer and moving pack ice during the winter. Since the shelf normally possesses cracks and crevasses, it will eventually fracture to yield freely floating icebergs. Some minor ice shelves generate large iceberg volumes because of their rapid velocity; the small Amery Ice Shelf, for instance, produces 31 cubic km (about 7 cubic miles) of icebergs per year as it drains about 12 percent of the east Antarctic Ice Sheet. Larsen Ice Shelf Map showing the extent of collapse of the Larsen Ice Shelf. The Larsen A Ice Shelf disintegrated in 1995, whereas the Larsen B Ice Shelf broke apart in 2002. Both events were caused by water from surface melting that ran down into crevasses, refroze, and wedged each shelf into pieces. Iceberg calving may be caused by ocean wave action, contact with other icebergs, or the behaviour of melting water on the upper surface of the berg. With the use of tiltmeters (tools that can detect a change in the angle of the slope of an object), scientists monitoring iceberg-calving events have been able to link the breaking stress occurring near the ice front to long storm-generated swells originating tens of thousands of kilometres away. This bending stress is enhanced in the case of glacier tongues (long narrow floating ice shelves produced by fast-flowing glaciers that protrude far into the ocean). The swell causes the tongue to oscillate until it fractures. In addition, on a number of occasions, iceberg calving has been observed immediately after the collision of another iceberg with the ice front. Furthermore, the mass breakout of icebergs from Larsen Ice Shelf between 1995 and 2002, though generally ascribed to global warming, is thought to have occurred because summer meltwater on the surface of the shelf filled nearby crevasses. As the liquid water refroze, it expanded and produced fractures at the bases of the crevasses. This phenomenon, known as frost wedging, caused the shelf to splinter in several places and brought about the disintegration of the shelf. Arctic icebergs Arctic iceberg Most Arctic icebergs originate from the fast-flowing glaciers that descend from the Greenland Ice Sheet. Many glaciers are funneled through gaps in the chain of coastal mountains. The irregularity of the bedrock and valley wall topography both slows and accelerates the progress of glaciers. These stresses cause crevasses to form, which are then incorporated into the structure of the icebergs. Arctic bergs tend to be smaller and more randomly shaped than Antarctic bergs and also contain inherent planes of weakness, which can easily lead to further fracturing. If their draft exceeds the water depth of the submerged sill at the mouth of the fjord, newly calved bergs may stay trapped for long periods in their fjords of origin. Such an iceberg will change shape, especially in summer as the water in the fjord warms, through the action of differential melt rates occurring at different depths. Such variations in melting can affect iceberg stability and cause the berg to capsize. Examining the profiles of capsized bergs can help researchers detect the variation of summer temperature occurring at different depths within the fjord. In addition, the upper surfaces of capsized bergs may be covered by small scalloped indentations that are by-products of small convection cells that form when ice melts at the ice-water interface. The Arctic Ocean’s equivalent of the classic tabular iceberg of Antarctic waters is the ice island. Ice islands can be up to 30 km (19 miles) long but are only some 60 metres (200 feet) thick. The main source of ice islands used to be the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf on Canada’s Ellesmere Island near northwestern Greenland, but the ice shelf has been retreating as ice islands and bergs continue to calve from it. (The ice shelf is breaking into pieces faster than new ice can be formed.) Since the beginning of observations in the 1950s, the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf has virtually disappeared. The most famous of its ice islands was T-3, which was so named because it was the third in a series of three radar targets detected north of Alaska. This ice island carried a manned scientific station from 1952 to 1974. Ice islands produced by Ellesmere Island calve into the Beaufort Gyre (the clockwise-rotating current system in the Arctic Ocean) and may make several circuits of the Canada Basin before exiting the Arctic Ocean via Fram Strait (an ocean passage between Svalbard and Greenland). sea ice and iceberg drift patterns Sea ice and iceberg drift patterns in the Northern Hemisphere. A third source of ice islands, one that has become more active, is northeastern Greenland. The Flade Isblink, a small ice cap on Nordostrundingen in the northeastern corner of Greenland, calves thin tabular ice islands with clearly defined layering into Fram Strait. Observations in 1984 showed 60 grounded bergs with freeboards of 12–15 metres (40–50 feet) off Nordostrundingen in 37–53 metres (120–175 feet) of water. Similar bergs acted as pinning points for pressure ridges, which produced a blockage of the western part of Fram Strait for several years during the 1970s. In 2003 the multiyear cover of fast ice (see sea ice) along the northeastern Greenland coast broke out. This allowed a huge number of tabular icebergs to emerge from the fast-flowing Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden Glacier and Zachariae Isstrøm in northeastern Greenland. Some of these reached the Labrador Sea two to three years later, while others remained grounded in 80–110 metres (260–360 feet) of water on the Greenland shelf. Iceberg structure A newly calved Antarctic tabular iceberg retains the physical properties of the outer part of the parent ice shelf. The shelf has the same layered structure as the continental ice sheet from which it flowed. All three features are topped with recently fallen snow that is underlain by older annual layers of increasing density. Annual layers are often clearly visible on the vertical side of a new tabular berg, which implies that the freeboard of the iceberg is mainly composed of compressed snow rather than ice. Density profiles through newly calved bergs show that at the surface of the berg the density might be only 400 kg per cubic metre (25 pounds per cubic foot)—pure ice has a density of 920 kg per cubic metre (57 pounds per cubic foot)—and both air and water may pass through the spaces between the crystal grains. Only when the density reaches 800 kg per cubic metre (50 pounds per cubic foot) deep within the berg do the air channels collapse to form air bubbles. At this point, the material can be properly classified as “ice,” whereas the lower- density material above the ice is more properly called “firn.” Corresponding to a layer some 150–200 years old and coinciding approximately with the waterline, the firn-ice transition occurs about 40–60 metres (130–200 feet) below the surface of the iceberg. Deeper still, as density and pressure increase, the air bubbles become compressed. Within the Greenland Ice Sheet, pressures of 10–15 atmospheres (10,100–15,200 millibars) have been measured; the resulting air bubbles tend to be elongated, possessing lengths up to 4 mm (0.2 inch) and diameters of 0.02–0.18 mm (0.0008–0.007 inch). In Antarctic ice shelves and icebergs, the air bubbles are more often spherical or ellipsoidal and possess a diameter of 0.33–0.49 mm (0.01–0.02 inch). The size of the air bubbles decreases with increasing depth within the ice. temperature differences between icebergs and ice shelves As ice depth increases to 12 metres (40 feet) and beyond, the temperature difference between icebergs and ice shelves is negligible. As soon as an iceberg calves, it starts to warm relative to its parent ice shelf. This warming accelerates as the berg drifts into more temperate regions, especially when it drifts free of the surrounding pack ice. Once the upper surface of the berg begins to melt, the section above the waterline warms relatively quickly to temperatures that approach the melting point of ice. Meltwater at the surface can percolate through the permeable uppermost 40–60 metres (130–200 feet) and refreeze at depth. This freezing releases the berg’s latent heat, and the visible part of the berg becomes a warm mass that has little mechanical strength; it is composed of firn and thus can be easily eroded. The remaining mechanical strength of the iceberg is contained in the “cold core” below sea level, where temperatures remain at −15 to −20 °C (5 to −4 °F). In the cold core, heat transfer is inhibited owing to the lack of percolation and refreezing. Iceberg size and shape For many years, the largest reliably measured Antarctic iceberg was the one first observed off Clarence Island (one of the South Shetland Islands) by the whale catcher Odd I in 1927; it was 180 km (110 miles) long, was approximately square, and possessed a freeboard of 30–40 metres (100–130 feet). In 1956 an iceberg was sighted by USS Glacier off Scott Island (a small island about 500 km [300 miles] northeast of Victoria Land in the Ross Sea) with unconfirmed length of 335 km (210 miles) and width of 100 km (60 miles). However, recently there have been many calvings of giant icebergs in the Ross and Weddell seas with dimensions that have been measured accurately by satellite. In 2000 iceberg B-15 broke off the Ross Ice Shelf with an initial length of 295 km (about 185 miles). Although B-15 broke into two fragments after a few days, B-15A—the larger portion, measuring 120 km (75 miles) long by 20 km (12 miles) wide—obstructed the entrance to McMurdo Sound and prevented the pack ice in the sound from clearing out in the summer. In October 2005 B-15A broke up into several large pieces off Cape Adare in Victoria Land because of the impact of distant swell. Iceberg C-19 was an even larger but narrow iceberg that broke off the Ross Ice Shelf in May 2002. It fragmented before it could drift far. Iceberg size categories category height length metres feet metres feet Source: International Ice Patrol growler < 1 < 3 < 5 < 16 bergy bit 1 to 4 3 to 13 5 to 14 15 to 46 small berg 5 to 15 14 to 50 15 to 60 47 to 200 medium berg 16 to 45 51 to 150 61 to 122 201 to 400 large berg 46 to 75 151 to 240 123 to 204 401 to 670 very large berg > 75 > 240 > 204 > 670 The Antarctic Peninsula has been warming significantly in recent decades (by 2.5 °C [4.5 °F] since the 1950s). Three ice shelves on the peninsula, the Wordie and Wilkins ice shelves on the west side of the peninsula and the Larsen Ice Shelf on the east side, have been disintegrating. This has caused the release of tremendous numbers of icebergs. The Larsen Ice Shelf has retreated twice since 2000; each event involved the fracture and release of a vast area of shelf ice in the form of multiple gigantic icebergs and innumerable smaller ones. The breakout of 3,250 square km (1,250 square miles) of shelf over 35 days in early 2002 effectively ended the existence of the Larsen B portion of the shelf. Although these events received much attention and were thought to be symptomatic of global warming, the Ross Sea sector does not seem to be warming at present. It is likely that the emission of giant icebergs in this zone was an isolated event. Intense iceberg outbreaks, such as the one described above, may not necessarily be occurring with a greater frequency than in the past. Rather, they are more easily detected with the aid of satellites. In the typically ice-free Southern Ocean, surveys of iceberg diameters show that most bergs have a typical diameter of 300–500 metres (1,000–1,600 feet), although a few exceed 1 km (0.6 mile). It is possible to calculate the flexural (bending) response of a tabular iceberg to long Southern Ocean swells, and it has been found that a serious storm is capable of breaking down most bergs larger than 1 km into fragments. Arctic bergs are generally smaller than Antarctic bergs, especially when newly calved. The largest recorded Arctic iceberg (excluding ice islands) was observed off Baffin Island in 1882; it was 13 km (8 miles) long by 6 km (4 miles) wide and possessed a freeboard, or the height of the berg above the waterline, of 20 metres (65 feet). Most Arctic bergs are much smaller and have a typical diameter of 100–300 metres (330–1,000 feet). Owing to their origin in narrow, fast-flowing glaciers, many Arctic bergs calve into random shapes that often develop further as they fracture and capsize. Antarctic bergs also evolve by the erosion of the weak freeboard or via further calving into tilted shapes. Depending on the local shape of the ice shelf at calving, the surfaces of icebergs, even while still predominantly tabular, may be domed or concave. Erosion and melting types of icebergs Icebergs are typically divided into six types. iceberg tip Only a small part of a giant iceberg shows above the surface of the ocean. Most of the erosion taking place on Antarctic icebergs occurs after the bergs have emerged into the open Southern Ocean. Melt and percolation through the weak firn layer bring most of the freeboard volume to the melting point. This allows ocean wave action around the edges to penetrate the freeboard portion of the berg. Erosion occurs both mechanically and through the enhanced transport of heat from ocean turbulence. The result is a wave cut that can penetrate for several metres into the berg. The snow and firn above it may collapse to create a growler (a floating block about the size of a grand piano) or a bergy bit (a larger block about the size of a small house). At the same time, the turbulence level is enhanced around existing irregularities such as cracks and crevasses. Waves eat their way into these features, causing cracks to grow into caves whose unsupported roofs may also collapse. Through these processes, the iceberg can evolve into a drydock or a pinnacled berg. (Both types are composed of apparently independent freeboard elements that are linked below the waterline.) Such a berg may look like a megalithic stone circle with shallow water in the centre. In the case of Arctic icebergs, which often suffer from repeated capsizes, there is no special layer of weak material. Instead, the whole berg gradually melts at a rate dependent on the salinity (the salt concentration present in a volume of water) and temperature at various depths in the water column and on the velocity of the berg relative to the water near the surface. On the basis of their observations of iceberg deterioration, American researchers W.F. Weeks and Malcolm Mellor have proposed a rough formula for predicting melt loss: –Z = K D, where Z = loss in metres per day from the walls and bottom of the iceberg, K = a constant of order 0.12, and D = mean water temperature in °C averaged over the draft of the iceberg. This yields a loss of 120 metres (400 feet) from iceberg sides and bottom during 100 days of drift in water at 10 °C (50 °F)—a rate that corresponds quite well to survival times of icebergs in waters off the coast of Newfoundland as measured by the International Ice Patrol. It has been suggested that if the melt rate could be reduced by interposing a layer of fabric between the ice and water, an iceberg could theoretically survive long enough to be towed across the Atlantic Ocean from Newfoundland to Spain for use as a water and power source. In Arctic icebergs, erosion often leads to a loss of stability and capsizing. For an Antarctic tabular berg, complete capsize is uncommon, though tiltmeter measurements have shown that some long, narrow bergs may roll completely over a very long period. More common is a shift to a new position of stability, which creates a new waterline for wave erosion. When tabular icebergs finally fragment into smaller pieces, these smaller individual bergs melt faster, because a larger proportion of their surface relative to volume is exposed to the water. Iceberg distribution and drift trajectories path of the Trolltunga iceberg The path of the Trolltunga iceberg, 1967–78. In the Antarctic, a freshly calved iceberg usually begins by moving westward in the Antarctic Coastal Current, with the coastline on its left. Since its trajectory is also turned to the left by the Coriolis force owing to Earth’s rotation, it may run aground and remain stationary for years before moving on. For instance, a large iceberg called Trolltunga calved from the Fimbul Ice Shelf near the Greenwich meridian in 1967, and it became grounded in the southern Weddell Sea for five years before continuing its drift. If a berg can break away from the coastal current (as Trolltunga had done by late 1977), it enters the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, or West Wind Drift. This eastward-flowing system circles the globe at latitudes of 40°–60° S. Icebergs tend to enter this current system at four well-defined longitudes or “retroflection zones”: the Weddell Sea, east of the Kerguelen Plateau at longitude 90° E, west of the Balleny Islands at longitude 150° E, and in the northeastern Ross Sea. These zones reflect the partial separation of the surface water south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current into independently circulating gyres, and they imply that icebergs found at low latitudes may originate from specific sectors of the Antarctic coast. Once in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the iceberg’s track is generally eastward, driven by both the current and the wind. Also, the Coriolis force pushes the berg slightly northward. The berg will then move crabwise in a northeasterly direction so that it can end up at relatively low latitudes and in relatively warm waters before disintegrating. In November 2006, for instance, a chain of four icebergs was observed just off Dunedin (at latitude 46° S) on New Zealand’s South Island. Under extreme conditions, such as its capture by a cold eddy, an iceberg may succeed in reaching extremely low latitudes. For example, clusters of bergs with about 30 metres (100 feet) of freeboard were sighted in the South Atlantic at 35°50′ S, 18°05′ E in 1828. In addition, icebergs have been responsible for the disappearance of innumerable ships off Cape Horn. Scoresby Sund Satellite image of Scoresby Sund, Greenland. In the Arctic Ocean, the highest latitude sources of icebergs are Svalbard archipelago north of Norway and the islands of the Russian Arctic. The iceberg production from these sources is not large—an estimated 6.28 cubic km (1.5 cubic miles) per year in a total of 250–470 cubic km (60–110 cubic miles) for the entire Arctic region. An estimated 26 percent originates in Svalbard, 36 percent stems from Franz Josef Land, 32 percent is added by Novaya Zemlya, about 6 percent begins in Severnaya Zemlya, and 0.3 percent comes from Ushakov Island. Many icebergs from these sources move directly into the shallow Barents or Kara seas, where they run aground. Looping trails of broken pack ice are left as the bergs move past the obstacles. Other bergs pass through Fram Strait and into the East Greenland Current. As these icebergs pass down the eastern coast of Greenland, their numbers are augmented by others produced by tidewater glaciers, especially those from Scoresby Sund. Scoresby Sund is an inlet that is large enough to have an internal gyral circulation. Water driven by the East Greenland Current enters on the north side of the inlet and flows outward on the south side. This pattern encourages the flushing of icebergs from the fjord. In contrast, narrower fjords offer more opportunities for icebergs to run aground; they also experience an estuarine circulation pattern where outward flow at the surface is nearly balanced by an inward flow at depth. An iceberg feels both currents because of its draft and thus does not move seaward as readily as sea ice generated in the fjord. Baffin Bay An iceberg in Baffin Bay, North Atlantic Ocean. As the increased flux of icebergs reaches Cape Farewell, most bergs turn into Baffin Bay, although a few “rogue” icebergs continue directly into the Labrador Sea, especially if influenced by prolonged storm activity. Icebergs entering Baffin Bay first move northward in the West Greenland Current and are strongly reinforced by icebergs from the prolific West Greenland glaciers. About 10,000 icebergs are produced in this region every year. Bergs then cross to the west side of the bay, where they move south in the Baffin Island Current toward Labrador. At the northern end of Baffin Bay, in Melville Bay, lies an especially fertile iceberg-producing glacier front produced by the Humboldt Glacier, the largest glacier in the Northern Hemisphere. iceberg number and latitude Graph of the change in iceberg number with decreasing latitude in the Northern Hemisphere. Some icebergs take only 8–15 months to move from Lancaster Sound to Davis Strait, but the total passage around Baffin Bay can take three years or more, owing to groundings and inhibited motion when icebergs are embedded in winter sea ice. The flux of bergs that emerges from Davis Strait into the Labrador Current, where the final part of the bergs’ life cycle occurs, is extremely variable. The number of bergs decreases linearly with latitude. This reduction is primarily due to melting and break-up or grounding followed by breakup. On average, 473 icebergs per year manage to cross the 48° N parallel and enter the zone where they are a danger to shipping—though numbers vary greatly from year to year. Surviving bergs will have lost at least 85 percent of their original mass. They are fated to melt on the Grand Banks or when they reach the “cold wall,” or surface front, that separates the Labrador Current from the warm Gulf Stream between latitudes 40° and 44° N. Much work has gone into modeling the patterns of iceberg drift, especially because of the need to divert icebergs away from oil rigs. It is often difficult to predict an iceberg’s drift speed and direction, given the wind and current velocities. An iceberg is affected by the frictional drag of the wind on its smooth surfaces (skin friction drag) and upon its protuberances (form drag). Likewise, the drag of the current acts upon its immersed surfaces; however, the current changes direction with increasing depth, by means of an effect known as the Ekman spiral. Another important factor governing an iceberg’s speed and direction is the Coriolis force, which diverts icebergs toward the right of their track in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This force is typically stronger on icebergs than on sea ice, because icebergs have a larger mass per unit of sea-surface area. As a result, it is unusual for icebergs to move in the same direction as sea ice. Typically, their direction of motion relative to the surface wind is some 40°–50° to the right (Northern Hemisphere) or left (Southern Hemisphere). Icebergs progress at about 3 percent of the wind speed. Iceberg scour and sediment transport When an iceberg runs aground, it can plow a furrow several metres deep in the seabed that may extend for tens of kilometres. Iceberg scour marks have been known from the Labrador Sea and Grand Banks since the early 1970s. In the Arctic, many marks are found at depths of more than 400 metres (1,300 feet), whereas the deepest known sill, or submerged ridge, within Greenland fjords is 220 metres (about 725 feet) deep. This unsolved anomaly suggests that icebergs were much deeper in the past or that sedimentation rates within the fjords are so slow that marks dating from periods of reduced sea level have not yet been filled in. It is also possible that an irregular berg can increase its draft by capsizing, though model studies suggest that the maximum gain is only a few percent. Since not all iceberg-producing fjords have been adequately surveyed, another possibility is that Greenland fjords exist with entrances of greater depth. In the Antarctic, the first scours were found in 1976 at latitude 16° W off the coast of Queen Maud Land in the eastern Weddell Sea, and further discoveries were made off Wilkes Land and Cape Hallett at the eastern entrance to the Ross Sea. In addition, iceberg scour marks have been found on land. On King William Island in the Canadian Arctic, scour marks have been identified in locations where the island rose out of the sea—the result of a postglacial rebound after the weight of the Laurentide Ice Sheet was removed. Furthermore, Canadian geologist Christopher Woodworth-Lynas has found evidence of iceberg scour marks in the satellite imagery of Mars. Scour marks are strong indicators of past water flow. Observations indicate that long furrows like plow marks are made when an iceberg is driven by sea ice, whereas a freely floating berg makes only a short scour mark or a single depression. Apart from simple furrows, “washboard patterns” have been seen. It is thought that these patterns are created when a tabular berg runs aground on a wide front and is then carried forward by tilting and plowing on successive tides. Circular depressions, thought to be made when an irregular iceberg touches bottom with a small “foot” and then swings to and fro in the current, have also been observed. Grounded bergs have a deleterious effect on the ecosystem of the seabed, often scraping it clear of all life. Both icebergs and pack ice transport sediment in the form of pebbles, cobbles, boulders, finer material, and even plant and animal life thousands of kilometres from their source area. Arctic icebergs often carry a top burden of dirt from the eroded sides of the valley down which the parent glacier ran, whereas both Arctic and Antarctic bergs carry stones and dirt on their underside. Stones are lifted from the glacier bed and later deposited out at sea as the berg melts. The presence of ice-rafted debris (IRD) in seabed-sediment cores is an indicator that icebergs, sea ice, or both have occurred at that location during a known time interval. (The age of the deposit is indicated by the depth in the sediment at which the debris is found.) Noting the locations of ice-rafted debris is a very useful method of mapping the distribution of icebergs and thus the cold surface water occurring during glacial periods and at other times in the geologic past. IRD mapping surveys have been completed for the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Southern oceans. The type of rock in the debris can also be used to identify the source region of the transporting iceberg. Caution must be used in such interpretation because, even in the modern era, icebergs can spread far beyond their normal limits under exceptional conditions. For instance, reports of icebergs off the coast of Norway in spring 1881 coincided with the most extreme advance ever recorded of East Greenland sea ice. It is likely that the bergs were carried eastward along with the massive production and outflow of Arctic sea ice. It is ice-rafted plant life that gives the occasional exotic colour to an iceberg. Bergs are usually white (the colour of snow or bubbly ice) or blue (the colour of glacial ice that is relatively bubble-free). A few deep green icebergs are seen in the Antarctic; it is believed that these are formed when seawater rich in organic matter freezes onto the bottoms of the ice shelves. Climatic impacts of icebergs Impacts on ice sheets and sea level Apart from local weather effects, such as fog production, icebergs have two main impacts on climate. Iceberg production affects the mass balance of the parent ice sheets, and melting icebergs influence both ocean structure and global sea level. The Antarctic Ice Sheet has a volume of 28 million cubic km (about 6.7 million cubic miles), which represents 70 percent of the total fresh water (including groundwater) in the world. The mass of the ice sheet is kept in balance by a process of gain and loss—gain from snowfall over the whole ice sheet and ice loss from the melting of ice at the bottom of the ice shelf and from the calving of icebergs from the edges of the ice shelf. The effect of summer runoff and from sublimation off the ice surface is negligible. Annual snowfall estimates for the Antarctic continent start at 1,000 cubic km (240 cubic miles). If the Antarctic Ice Sheet is in neutral mass balance, the annual rate of loss from melting and iceberg calving must be close to this value; indeed, estimates of iceberg flux do start at this value, though some run much higher. Such apparently large fluxes are still less than the mean flow rate of the Amazon River, which is 5,700 cubic km (about 1,370 cubic miles) per year. In Antarctica the annual loss amounts to only one ten-thousandth of its mass, so the ice sheet is an enormous passive reservoir. However, if losses from iceberg calving and ice-shelf melting are greater than gains from snowfall, global sea levels will rise. At present, the size, and even the sign, of the contribution from Antarctica is uncertain. Consequently, Antarctic ice flux has not been included as a term in the sea-level predictions of Climate Change 2007, the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). What is more certain is that the retreat of glaciers in the Arctic and mountain regions has contributed about 50 percent to current rates of sea-level rise. (The rest is due to the thermal expansion of water as the ocean warms.) An increasing contribution is coming from a retreat of the Greenland Ice Sheet, and part of this contribution is occurring as an iceberg flux. Impact on ocean structure In considering the effect of iceberg melt upon ocean structure, it is found that the total Antarctic melt is equivalent to the addition of 0.1 metre (0.3 foot) of fresh water per year at the surface. This is like adding 0.1 metre of extra annual rainfall. The dilution that occurs, if averaged over a mixed layer 100–200 metres (330–660 feet) deep, amounts to a decrease of 0.015–0.03 part per thousand (ppt) of salt. Melting icebergs thus make a small but measurable contribution to maintaining the Southern Ocean pycnocline (the density boundary separating low-salinity surface water from higher-salinity deeper water) and to keeping surface salinity in the Southern Ocean to its observed low value of 34 ppt or below. It is interesting to note that the annual production of Antarctic iceberg ice is about one-tenth of the annual production of Antarctic sea ice. Sea ice has a neutral effect on overall ocean salinity, because it returns to liquid during the summer months. Nevertheless, when sea ice forms, it has an important differential effect in that it increases ocean salinity where it forms. This is often near the Antarctic coast. Increased salinity encourages the development of convection currents and the formation of bottom water (masses of cold and dense water). Icebergs, on the other hand, always exert a stabilizing influence on the salinity of the water column. This stabilizing influence manifests itself only when the icebergs melt, and this occurs at lower latitudes. Individual Arctic icebergs, although similar in numbers to Antarctic bergs (10,000–15,000 emitted per year), are smaller on average, so the ice flux is less. This, however, was not necessarily the case during the last glacial period. It has been postulated that, during the first stage of the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet of North America, a large ice-dammed glacial lake (Lake Agassiz) formed in Canada over much of present-day Manitoba. When the ice dam broke, an armada of icebergs was suddenly released into the North Atlantic. As the icebergs melted, they added so much fresh water at the surface that the normal winter convection processes were turned off in the North Atlantic Ocean. As a result, the Gulf Stream was weakened, and northern Europe was returned to ice-age conditions for another millennium—the so-called Younger Dryas event (see Climatic variation and change). Iceberg detection, tracking, and management An iceberg is a very large object that can be detected in the open sea both visually and by radar. In principle an iceberg can also be detected by sonar. In the open sea, an iceberg produces squealing, popping, and creaking sounds caused by mechanical stresses and cracking, and these sounds can be detected underwater up to 2 km (more than a mile) away. In summer, bergs can also produce a high-pitched hissing sound called “bergy seltzer,” which is due to the release of high-pressure air bubbles from the ice as it melts in the warmer water. The discovery of an iceberg depends on the alertness of a ship’s watchkeepers, and a decaying iceberg poses additional hazards because of its trail of growlers and bergy bits. Although small in size, they have masses (up to 120 tons for growlers; up to 5,400 tons for bergy bits) that are capable of damaging or sinking ships. As they drop into the sea, icebergs often roll over and lose their snow layers. In a heavy sea, the bergs’ smooth wetted ice surfaces produce a low radar cross section. This makes them difficult to discriminate by eye against foam and whitecaps. Because a ship may steer to avoid a large parent berg, it may be in greater danger from undetected growlers or bergy bits drifting nearby. The problem of protecting shipping from icebergs is most critical in two regions, the high-latitude Southern Ocean and the northwestern section of the North Atlantic. The Southern Ocean threat is increasing because large container ships—those unable or unwilling to use the Panama Canal—can reach high southern latitudes on transit from Australia or New Zealand to Cape Horn. No special measures are currently in place to protect such vessels. In the North Atlantic, the International Ice Patrol was established in 1914 following the loss of the RMS Titanic to an iceberg in April 1912. Its task is to track icebergs as they enter shipping lanes via the Labrador Current and to keep a continuous computer plot of the known or estimated whereabouts of every berg. Reports are transmitted twice a day to ships. In the past, iceberg positions were sited by ships or aircraft; however, it is becoming more common that icebergs are sited by the interpretation of satellite imagery. The most useful type of sensor is synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which combines high resolution with day-and-night weather-independent capability. Tools with a pixel size of about 20 metres (65 feet) are capable of resolving most bergs. The new generation of SAR in the early 21st century, such as the Canadian RADARSAT and the European ENVISAT, also surveys wide swaths (up to 400 km [250 miles] wide) in every orbit and thus is capable of surveying the entire danger zone once per day. During the 1950s and 1960s, attempts were made by the U.S. Coast Guard to find ways of fragmenting icebergs that posed a threat to shipping. All were unsuccessful. Explosive techniques were particularly so, since ice and snow are so effective at absorbing mechanical shock. Often the yield of fragmented ice was no greater than the mass of explosive used. Because of the need to defend offshore drilling and production platforms from icebergs, the viability of explosive techniques has been readdressed more recently. It was found that very cold ice, such as the type found in the lower part of an iceberg, can be fragmented successfully by the use of slow-burning explosives such as Thermit. Thermit can be implanted by drilling; however, implantation is a dangerous process because of the possibility of capsize. Until these techniques are perfected, icebergs cannot be destroyed. Current protocols call for the location and tracking of threatening icebergs. Iceberg trajectories are then predicted by increasingly sophisticated computer models. If necessary, icebergs are captured and towed out of the way of their targets. Peter Wadhams World Heritage site Table of Contents Introduction Designating World Heritage sites Origins of the World Heritage Convention Growth of the World Heritage List and challenges to preservation Select World Heritage sites References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics Images & Videos Ajanta Caves: reclining Buddha Yosemite National Park Geiranger Fjord, southwestern Norway; example of a natural World Heritage site (designated 2005). Aboriginal rock painting, Kakadu National Park, northern Australia; example of a mixed cultural and natural World Heritage site (designated 1981; extended 1987, 1992). Aswān, Egypt: Abu Simbel Abu Simbel Travel down the Nile to discover important ancient Egyptian cultural sites such as the Pyramids of Giza Nubia Abu Simbel, Egypt: Great Temple Roman Kiosk, Nile River For Students World Heritage site summary Quizzes Taj Mahal, Agra, India. UNESCO World Heritage Site (minarets; Muslim, architecture; Islamic architecture; marble; mausoleum) Wonders of the World Quiz Colosseum, Rome, Italy. (Flavian Amphitheatre, arena) World Heritage Sites in Italy Quiz Queen Victoria's coronation, 1837. The Archbishop of Canterbury placing the crown on Victoria's head in Westminster Abbey. World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom Quiz Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. World Heritage Sites in France Quiz Related Questions What are other names for Mount Everest? Read Next Aerial view of Florence (Firenze), Italy from the campanile of the Duomo, with the gigantic dome (designed by Filippo Brunelleschi) in the foreground. Unidentifiable tourists are visible on top of the dome, which provide a measure of the building s scale. 25 Famous Paintings to See the Next Time You’re in Florence Denali (Mount Mckinley), Denali National Park, Alaska. 7 (or 8) Summits: The World’s Highest Mountains by Continent Union Jack flag of Great Britain, united kingdom What’s the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom? Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, designed by Otto Wagner, operated from 1899 unti l981 when the rail line was converted to a subway. The two identical buildings were repurposed as an art gallery and a cafe with stairs to the newer underground station. 12 Revolutionary Buildings to Visit in Vienna Suleymaniye Mosque and River Bosporus, Istanbul, Turkey. 5 Buildings to See in Istanbul Discover World map. Continents. Oceans. Mendel thumb ok Just How Many Oceans Are There? Small, white rat (genus Rattus) on a glass table. (rodent, laboratory, experiment) Cruel and Unusual Punishments: 15 Types of Torture The Battle of New Orleans, by E. Percy Moran, c. 1910. Andrew Jackson, War of 1812. 26 Decade-Defining Events in U.S. History Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. Engraving by Cosomo Colombini (d. 1812) after a Leonardo self portrait. Ca. 1500. 10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci Aphrodite. Greek mythology. Sculpture. Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty. 12 Greek Gods and Goddesses American bison (Bison bison) also known as buffalo or plains buffalo on the prairie, western U.S. What’s the Difference Between Bison and Buffalo? Secret Service Agent Listens To Earpiece Secret Service Code Names of 11 U.S. Presidents Lifestyles & Social Issues Sociology & Society World Heritage site UNESCO Written and fact-checked by Article History Ajanta Caves: reclining Buddha Ajanta Caves: reclining Buddha See all media Related Topics: United Nations tourism the arts history List of World Heritage in Danger Related Facts And Data: Sydney Opera House - Facts Recent News Aug. 16, 2024, 3:29 AM ET (New York Times) New Israeli Settlement in West Bank Would Encroach on World Heritage Site, Activists Say Yosemite National Park El Capitan (left) and Bridalveil Fall in Yosemite National Park, California. World Heritage site, any of various areas or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List. The sites are designated as having “outstanding universal value” under the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This document was adopted by UNESCO in 1972 and formally took effect in 1975 after having been ratified by 20 countries. It provides a framework for international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural treasures and natural areas throughout the world. Wreck of the Titanic Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Coordinates: 41°43′32″N 49°56′49″W This is a good article. Click here for more information. Page protected with pending changes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility. Wreck of the Titanic The Titanic's bow, photographed in June 2004 Event Sinking of the Titanic Cause Collision with an iceberg Date 15 April 1912; 112 years ago Location 370 nmi (690 km) south-southeast of Newfoundland, North Atlantic Ocean Coordinates 41°43′32″N 49°56′49″W[1] Discovered 1 September 1985; 38 years ago The wreck of RMS Titanic lies at a depth of about 12,500 feet (3,800 metres; 2,100 fathoms), about 370 nautical miles (690 kilometres) south-southeast off the coast of Newfoundland. It lies in two main pieces about 2,000 feet (600 m) apart. The bow is still recognisable with many preserved interiors, despite deterioration and damage sustained hitting the sea floor. In contrast, the stern is heavily damaged. A debris field around the wreck contains hundreds of thousands of items spilled from the ship as she sank. The bodies of the passengers and crew would originally have been distributed across the seabed, but have been consumed by other organisms. The Titanic sank in 1912, following her collision with an iceberg during her maiden voyage. Numerous expeditions unsuccessfully tried using sonar to map the seabed in the hope of finding the wreckage. In 1985, the wreck was finally located by a joint French–American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, originally on a mission to find two nuclear cold war submarines. The wreck has been the focus of intense interest and has been visited by numerous tourist and scientific expeditions, including by the submersible Titan, which imploded near the wreck in June 2023, killing all five aboard. Controversial salvage operations have recovered thousands of items, many of which have been conserved and put on public display. Many schemes have been proposed to raise the wreck, including filling it with ping-pong balls, injecting it with 180,000 tons of Vaseline, or using half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to encase it in an iceberg that would float to the surface. However, the wreck is too fragile to be raised and is protected by a UNESCO convention. Salvaging the Titanic Wreck of the Titanic is located in North Atlantic Wreck of the Titanic Location of the wreck of the Titanic in the North Atlantic Almost immediately after the Titanic sank on 15 April 1912, proposals were advanced to salvage it from its resting place in the North Atlantic Ocean, despite her exact location and condition being unknown. The families of several wealthy victims of the disaster – the Guggenheims, Astors, and Wideners – formed a consortium and contracted the Merritt and Chapman Derrick and Wrecking Company to raise the Titanic.[2] The project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a significant fraction of the necessary depth, where the pressure is over 6,000 pounds per square inch (40 megapascals),[dubious – discuss] about 400 standard atmospheres. The company considered dropping dynamite on the wreck to dislodge bodies which would float to the surface, but finally gave up after oceanographers suggested that the extreme pressure would have compressed the bodies into gelatinous lumps.[3] In fact, this was incorrect. Whale falls, a phenomenon not discovered until 1987—coincidentally, by the same submersible used for the first crewed expedition to the Titanic the year before[4]—demonstrate that water-filled corpses, in this case cetaceans, can sink to the bottom essentially intact.[5] The high pressure and low temperature of the water would have prevented significant quantities of gas forming during decomposition, preventing the bodies of Titanic victims from rising back to the surface.[6] In later years, numerous proposals were put forward to salvage the Titanic. However, all fell afoul of practical and technological difficulties, a lack of funding and, in many cases, a lack of understanding of the physical conditions at the wreck site. Charles Smith, a Denver architect, proposed in March 1914 to attach electromagnets to a submarine which would be irresistibly drawn to the wreck's steel hull. Having found its exact position, more electromagnets would be sent down from a fleet of barges which would winch the Titanic to the surface.[7] An estimated cost of US$1.5 million ($35.5 million today) and its impracticality meant that the idea was not put into practice. Another proposal involved raising the Titanic by means of attaching balloons to her hull using electromagnets. Once enough balloons had been attached, the ship would float gently to the surface. Again, the idea got no further than the drawing board.[8] Salvage proposals in the 1960s and 1970s The Titanic surfacing on a poster publicising the film Raise the Titanic. The scene depicted would not have been physically possible. In the mid-1960s, a hosiery worker from Baldock, England, named Douglas Woolley devised a plan to find the Titanic using a bathyscaphe and raise the wreck by inflating nylon balloons that would be attached to her hull.[9] The declared objective was to "bring the wreck into Liverpool and convert it to a floating museum".[10] The Titanic Salvage Company was established to manage the scheme and a group of businessmen from West Berlin set up an entity called Titanic-Tresor to support it financially.[9] The project collapsed when its proponents found they could not overcome the problem of how the balloons would be inflated in the first place. Calculations showed that it could take ten years to generate enough gas to overcome the water pressure.[11] A variety of proposals to salvage the ship were made during the 1970s. One called for 180,000 tons of molten wax (or alternatively, Vaseline) to be pumped into the Titanic, lifting her to the surface.[12] Another proposal involved filling the Titanic with ping-pong balls, but overlooked the fact that the balls would be crushed by the pressure long before reaching the depth of the wreck.[13] A similar idea involving the use of Benthos glass spheres, which could survive the pressure, was scuppered when the cost of the number of spheres required was put at over $238 million.[12] An unemployed haulage contractor from Walsall named Arthur Hickey proposed to encase the Titanic inside an iceberg, freezing the water around the wreck in a buoyant jacket of ice. The ice, being less dense than liquid water, would float to the surface and could be towed to shore. The BOC Group calculated that this would require half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to be pumped down to the sea bed.[14] In his 1976 thriller Raise the Titanic!, author Clive Cussler's hero Dirk Pitt repairs the holes in the Titanic's hull, pumps it full of compressed air and succeeds in making it "leap out of the waves like a modern submarine blowing its ballast tanks", a scene depicted on the posters of the subsequent film of the book. Although this was an "artistically stimulating" highlight of the film,[15] made using a 55-foot (17 m) model of the Titanic, it would not have been physically possible.[16] At the time of the book's writing, it was still believed that the Titanic sank in one piece. Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution had long been interested in finding the Titanic. Despite early negotiations with possible backers being abandoned when it emerged that they wanted to turn the wreck into souvenir paperweights, more sympathetic backers joined Ballard to form a company named Seasonics International Ltd. as a vehicle for rediscovering and exploring the Titanic. In October 1977, he made his first attempt to find the ship with the aid of the Alcoa Corporation's deep sea salvage vessel Seaprobe. This was essentially a drillship with sonar equipment and cameras attached to the end of the drilling pipe. It could lift objects from the seabed using a remote-controlled mechanical claw.[17] The expedition ended in failure when the drilling pipe broke, sending 3,000 feet (900 m) of pipe and US$600,000 (equivalent to $3,016,804 in 2023) worth of electronics plunging to the sea bed.[17] In 1978, The Walt Disney Company and National Geographic magazine considered mounting a joint expedition to find the Titanic, using the aluminium submersible Aluminaut. The Titanic would have been well within the submersible's depth limits, but the plans were abandoned for financial reasons.[9] The next year, the British billionaire financier and tycoon Sir James Goldsmith set up Seawise & Titanic Salvage Ltd. with the involvement of underwater diving and photographic experts. His aim was to use the publicity of finding the Titanic to promote his newly established magazine, NOW!. An expedition to the North Atlantic was scheduled for 1980 but was cancelled due to financial difficulties.[9] A year later, NOW! folded after 84 issues with Goldsmith incurring huge financial losses.[18] Fred Koehler, an electronics repairman from Coral Gables, Florida, sold his electronics shop to finance the completion of a two-man deep-sea submersible called Seacopter. He planned to dive to the Titanic, enter the hull and retrieve a fabulous collection of diamonds rumoured to be contained in the purser's safe. However, he was unable to obtain financial backing for his planned expedition.[19] Another proposal involved using a semi-submersible platform mounted with cranes, resting on two watertight supertankers, that would winch the wreck off the seabed and carry it to shore.[20] Jack Grimm's expeditions, 1980–1983 On 17 July 1980, an expedition sponsored by Texan oilman Jack Grimm set off from Port Everglades, Florida, in the research vessel H.J.W. Fay. Grimm had previously sponsored expeditions to find Noah's Ark, the Loch Ness Monster, Bigfoot, and the giant hole in the North Pole predicted by the pseudoscientific Hollow Earth hypothesis. To raise funds for his Titanic expedition, he obtained sponsorship from friends with whom he played poker, sold media rights through the William Morris Agency, commissioned a book, and obtained the services of Orson Welles to narrate a documentary. He acquired scientific support from Columbia University by donating $330,000 to the Lamont–Doherty Geological Observatory for the purchase of a wide-sweep sonar, in exchange for five years' use of the equipment and the services of technicians to support it. Drs. William B. F. Ryan of Columbia University and Fred Spiess of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California joined the expedition as consultants.[21] The expedition was almost cancelled when Grimm asked them to use a monkey trained to point at a spot on the map to supposedly indicate where the Titanic was. The scientists issued an ultimatum: "It's either us or the monkey." Grimm preferred the monkey, but was prevailed upon to take the scientists instead.[22] The results were inconclusive, as three weeks of surveying in almost continuous bad weather during July and August 1980 failed to find the Titanic. The problem was exacerbated by technological limitations; the Sea MARC sonar used by the expedition had a relatively low resolution and was a new and untested piece of equipment. It was nearly lost only 36 hours after it was first deployed when the tail was ripped off during a sharp turn, destroying the magnetometer, which would have been vital for detecting the Titanic's hull. Nonetheless, it surveyed an area of some 500 square nautical miles (1,700 square kilometres) and identified 14 possible targets.[22] A documentary of this expedition, featuring Welles, was titled Search for the Titanic (1981).[23] Grimm mounted a second expedition in June 1981 aboard the research vessel Gyre, with Spiess and Ryan again joining the expedition.[23] To increase their chances of finding the wreck, the team employed a much more capable sonar device, the Scripps Deep Tow. The weather was again very poor, but all 14 of the targets were successfully covered and found to be natural features. On the last day of the expedition, an object that looked like a propeller was found.[24] Grimm announced on his return to Boston that the Titanic had been found, but the scientists declined to endorse his identification. The object would never be seen again. [25] A documentary of this expedition, featuring James Drury, was titled Return to the Titanic (1981). This and the previous film were later combined into a single production, In Search of Titanic (1981). In July 1983, Grimm went back a third time with Ryan aboard the research vessel Robert D. Conrad. Nothing was found and bad weather brought an early end to the expedition. Although they did not know it at the time, the Sea MARC had passed over the Titanic but failed to detect it,[25] while Deep Tow had passed within 1+1⁄2 nautical miles (3 km) of the wreck.[26] Discovery D. Michael Harris and Jack Grimm failed to find the Titanic, but their expeditions did succeed in producing fairly detailed mapping of the area in which the ship sank.[25] It was clear that the position given in the Titanic's distress signals was inaccurate, which was a major expedition difficulty because it increased the search area's already-expansive size. Despite the failure of his 1977 expedition, Ballard had not given up hope and devised new technologies and a new search strategy to tackle the problem. The new technology was a system called Argo / Jason. This consisted of a remotely controlled deep-sea vehicle called Argo, equipped with sonar and cameras and towed behind a ship, with a robot called Jason tethered to it that could roam the sea floor, take close-up images and gather specimens. The images from the system would be transmitted back to a control room on the towing vessel where they could be assessed immediately. Although it was designed for scientific purposes, it also had important military applications and the United States Navy agreed to sponsor the system's development,[27] on condition that it was to be used to carry out a number of programmes—many still classified—for the Navy.[28] The Navy commissioned Ballard and his team to carry out a month-long expedition every year for four years, to keep Argo / Jason in good working condition.[29] It agreed to Ballard's proposal to use some of the time to search for the Titanic once the Navy's objectives had been met; the search would provide an ideal opportunity to test Argo / Jason. In 1984 the Navy sent Ballard and Argo to map the wrecks of the sunken nuclear submarines USS Thresher and USS Scorpion, lost in the North Atlantic at depths of up to 9,800 ft (3,000 m).[30] The expedition found the submarines and made an important discovery about how shipwrecks behave as they sink. As Thresher and Scorpion sank, debris spilled out from them across a wide area of the seabed and was sorted by the currents, so that light debris drifted furthest away from the site of the sinking. This debris field was far larger than the wrecks themselves. By following the comet-like trail of debris, the main pieces of wreckage could be found.[31] A second expedition to map the wreck of Scorpion was mounted in 1985. Only twelve days' search time would be left at the end of the expedition to look for the Titanic.[30] As Harris/Grimm's unsuccessful efforts had taken more than forty days,[25] Ballard decided that extra help would be needed. He approached the French national oceanographic agency, IFREMER, with which Woods Hole had previously collaborated. The agency had recently developed a high-resolution side-scan sonar called SAR and agreed to send a research vessel, Le Suroît, to survey the sea bed in the area where the Titanic was believed to lie. The idea was for the French to use the sonar to find likely targets, and then for the Americans to use Argo to check out the targets and hopefully confirm whether they were in fact the wreck.[32] The French team spent five weeks, from 5 July to 12 August 1985, "mowing the lawn" – sailing back and forth across the 150-square-nautical-mile (510-square-kilometre) target area to scan the sea bed in a series of stripes. However, they found nothing; though it turned out that they had passed within a few hundred yards of the Titanic in their first run.[33] Ballard realised that looking for the wreck itself using sonar was unlikely to be successful and adopted a different tactic: drawing on the experience of the surveys of Thresher and Scorpion, he would look for the debris field instead,[34] using Argo's cameras rather than sonar. While sonar could not distinguish human-made debris on the sea bed from natural objects, cameras could. The debris field would also be a far bigger target, stretching one nautical mile (2 km) or longer, whereas the Titanic itself was only 90 feet (27 m) wide.[35] The search required round-the-clock towing of Argo back and forth above the sea bed, with shifts of watchers aboard the research vessel Knorr looking at the camera pictures for any sign of debris.[36] After a week's fruitless searching, at 12:48 am on Sunday 1 September 1985, pieces of debris began to appear on Knorr's screens. One of them was identified as a boiler, identical to those shown in pictures from 1911.[37] The following day, the main part of the wreck was found and Argo sent back the first pictures of the Titanic since her sinking 73 years before.[38] The discovery made headlines around the world.[39] Subsequent expeditions 1986–1998 DSV Alvin, used in 1986 to mount the first crewed expedition to the wreck of the Titanic Following his discovery of the wreck site, Ballard returned to the Titanic in July 1986 aboard the research vessel RV Atlantis II. Now the deep-diving submersible DSV Alvin could take people back to the Titanic for the first time since her sinking, and the remotely operated vehicle Jason Jr. would allow the explorers to investigate the interior of the wreck. Another system, ANGUS, was used to carry out photo surveys of the debris field.[40] Jason Jr. descended the ruined Grand Staircase as far as B Deck, and photographed remarkably well-preserved interiors, including some chandeliers still hanging from the ceilings.[41] Between 25 July and 10 September 1987, an expedition mounted by IFREMER and a consortium of American investors which included George Tulloch, G. Michael Harris, D. Michael Harris and Ralph White made 32 dives to the Titanic using the submersible Nautile. Controversially, they salvaged and brought ashore more than 1,800 objects.[42] A joint Russian-Canadian-American expedition took place in 1991 using the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and its two MIR submersibles. Sponsored by Stephen Low and IMAX, CBS, National Geographic and others, the expedition carried out extensive scientific research with a crew of 130 scientists and engineers. The MIRs carried out 17 dives, spending over 140 hours at the bottom, shooting 40,000 feet (12,000 m) of IMAX film. This was used to create the 1992 documentary film Titanica, which was later released in the US on DVD in a re-edited version narrated by Leonard Nimoy.[43][44] IFREMER and RMS Titanic Inc., the successors to the sponsors of the 1987 expedition, returned to the wreck with Nautile and the ROV Robin in June 1993. Over the course of fifteen days, Nautile made fifteen dives lasting between eight and twelve hours each.[45] Another 800 artefacts were recovered during the expedition including a two-tonne piece of a reciprocating engine, a lifeboat davit and the steam whistle from the ship's forward funnel.[46] In 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1998 RMS Titanic Inc. carried out an intensive series of dives that led to the recovery of over 4,000 items in the first two expeditions alone.[47] The 1996 expedition controversially attempted to raise a section of the Titanic itself, a section of the outer hull that originally comprised part of the wall of two first-class cabins on C Deck, extending down to D Deck. It weighed 20 tons,[48][49] measured 15 by 25 feet (4.6 m × 7.6 m) and had four portholes in it, three of which still had glass in them.[50] The section had come loose either during the sinking or as a result of the impact with the sea bed.[51][49] Its recovery using diesel-filled flotation bags was turned into something of an entertainment event, with two cruise ships accompanying the expedition to the wreck site.[52][53][54][55][56][57] Passengers were offered the chance, at $5,000 per person, to watch the recovery on television screens in their cabins[52][53][54][57][58] while enjoying luxury accommodation, Las Vegas–style shows, and casino gambling aboard the ships.[55] Various celebrities were recruited to enliven the proceedings, including Burt Reynolds, Debbie Reynolds and Buzz Aldrin,[49][52][57][58] and "grand receptions" for VIPs were scheduled on-shore where the hull section would be displayed.[55] However the lift ended disastrously when rough weather caused the ropes supporting the bags to snap.[56] At the moment the ropes broke, the hull section had been lifted to within only 200 feet (60 m) of the surface.[54] It hurtled 12,000 feet (3,700 m) back down,[59] embedding itself upright on the sea floor.[54][56] The attempt was strongly criticised by marine archaeologists, scientists, and historians as a money-making publicity stunt;[48][49][52][54][55] several publications compared the event to grave robbing,[52][54][55][56] and Ballard called the event "a carnival" and stated that "We tried to put it to rest, but this perpetuates the tragedy."[55][58] A second, successful attempt to lift the fragment was carried out in 1998.[48][49] The so-called "Big Piece" was conserved in a laboratory in Santa Fe for two years before being put on display at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino.[60] In 1995, Canadian director James Cameron chartered the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and the MIRs to make 12 dives to the Titanic. He used the footage in his blockbuster 1997 film Titanic.[61] The discovery of the wreck and a National Geographic documentary of Ballard's 1986 expedition had inspired him to write a synopsis in 1987 of what eventually became the film: "Do story with bookends of present day scene of wreck using submersibles intercut with memories of a survivor and re-created scenes of the night of the sinking. A crucible of human values under stress."[62] 2000–present The partly collapsed bathroom of Captain Edward Smith, with the bathtub now filled with rusticles The 2000 expedition by RMS Titanic Inc. carried out 28 dives during which over 800 artefacts were recovered, including the ship's engine telegraphs, perfume vials and watertight door gears.[63] In 2001, an American couple—David Leibowitz and Kimberly Miller[64]—caused controversy when they were married aboard a submersible that had set down on the bow of the Titanic, in a deliberate echo of a famous scene from James Cameron's 1997 film. The wedding was essentially a publicity stunt, sponsored by a British company called SubSea Explorer which had offered a free dive to the Titanic that Leibowitz had won. He asked whether his fiancée could come too and was told that she could—but only if she agreed to get married during the trip.[65] The same company also brought along Philip Littlejohn, the grandson of one of the Titanic's surviving crew members, who became the first descendant of a Titanic passenger or crew member to visit the wreck.[66] Cameron himself also returned to the Titanic in 2001 to carry out filming for Walt Disney Pictures' Ghosts of the Abyss, filmed in 3D.[66] In 2003 and 2004, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration carried out two expeditions to the Titanic. The first, carried out between 22 June and 2 July 2003, performed four dives in two days. Its key aims were to assess the current condition of the wreck site and carry out scientific observations to support ongoing research. The stern section, which had previously received relatively little attention from explorers, was specifically targeted for analysis. The microbial colonies aboard the Titanic were also a key focus of investigation.[67] The second expedition, from 27 May – 12 June 2004, saw the return of Robert Ballard to the Titanic nearly 20 years after he discovered it. The expedition spent 11 days on the wreck, carrying out high-resolution mapping using video and stereoscopic still images.[68] In 2005 there were two expeditions to the Titanic. James Cameron returned for the third and last time to film Last Mysteries of the Titanic. Another expedition searched for previously unseen pieces of wreckage, and led to the documentary Titanic's Final Moments: Missing Pieces. RMS Titanic Inc. mounted further expeditions to the Titanic in 2004[69] and 2010, when the first comprehensive map of the entire debris field was produced. Two autonomous underwater vehicles—torpedo-shaped robots—repeatedly ran backward and forward across the 3-by-5-nautical-mile (6 km × 9 km) debris field, taking sonar scans and over 130,000 high-resolution images. This enabled a detailed photomosaic of the debris field to be created for the first time, giving scientists a much clearer view of the dynamics of the ship's sinking. The expedition encountered difficulties: several hurricanes passed over the wreck site, and the Remora ROV was caught in a piece of wreckage. This same year saw the discovery of the new bacteria living in the rusticles on the Titanic, Halomonas titanicae.[70] Tourist and scientific visits to the Titanic still continue; by April 2012, 100 years since the disaster and nearly 25 since the discovery of the wreck, around 140 people had visited.[71] On 14 April 2012 (the 100th anniversary of the ship's sinking), the wreck of the Titanic became eligible for protection under the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.[72] In the same month, Robert Ballard, the wreck's discoverer, announced a plan to preserve the wreck of the Titanic by using deep-sea robots to paint the wreck with anti-fouling paint, to help keep the wreck in its current state for all time. The proposed plan that Ballard announced has been outlined in a documentary made to time with the Titanic's 100th sinking anniversary called Save the Titanic With Bob Ballard where Ballard himself talks about how this proposed paint job on the wreck will work. Ballard says that he proposed to robotically clean and repaint the Titanic with a colour scheme mimicking rusticles because he saw "original anti-fouling paint on the ship's hull, which was still working even after 74 years on the seabed" when he visited the Titanic in 1986.[73] In August 2019, a team of explorers and scientists used deep-submergence vehicle Limiting Factor to visit the wreck, marking the first crewed dive to the ship in 14 years. Five dives took place over a period of eight days. The team used specially adapted cameras to capture the wreck in 4K resolution for the first time, and dedicated photogrammetry passes were performed to create highly accurate and photoreal 3D models of the wreck. Footage from the dive was used for a documentary film by Atlantic Productions.[74] The documentary, Back to the Titanic, aired on National Geographic in 2020.[75] In May 2023, the mapping company Magellan and the film production company Atlantic Productions created the first full-sized digital scan of the Titanic, using deep-sea mapping. The 3D view of the entire ship enables it to be seen as if the water has been drained away. It is hoped the scan can shed new light on the sinking.[76] American company OceanGate began conducting commercial submersible tours of the wreck in July 2021 using its submersible Titan.[77] On 18 June 2023, Titan imploded near the wreck during a dive, killing pilot Stockton Rush and four passengers.[78][79][80] On July 6, 2023, OceanGate suspended all operations. On 15 July 2024, RMS Titanic Inc. held their first expedition to the wreck in 14 years, with the objective of examining its status in high-resolution photography for future scientific studies, likewise with identifying and searching for on-site artefacts.[81] The expedition also gave tribute to Nargeolet's contributions within the debris field,[82] having made numerous efforts in the preceding years in expanding knowledge over the area; A memorial plaque was placed on the seafloor in his honour.[83] Numerous other uncharted areas within the vicinity were explored as well.[84] Moreover, the event received coverage from the BBC, who interviewed numerous figures involved, such as co-leader David Gallo, who said "We want to see the wreck with a clarity and precision that's never before been achieved". Imaging programme chief Evan Kovacs also expressed his optimism in producing distinctly defined resolution, stating that "If all of the weather gods, the computer gods, the ROV gods, the camera gods – if all those gods align, we should be able to capture Titanic and the wreck site in as close to digital perfection as you can get. You would be able to quite literally count grains of sand". Furthermore, a magnetometer was utilised to produce metal detection – whether visible or not – for the first time in the history of Titanic expeditions.[85] The expedition was facilitated through an ROV. Description The location of the wreck is a considerable distance from the location transmitted by the ship's wireless operators before she went down. The Titanic is in two main pieces 370 nautical miles (690 km) southeast of Mistaken Point, Newfoundland and Labrador. The boilers found by Argo, which mark the point at which the ship went down,[86] are about 600 feet (180 m) east of the stern. The two main parts of the wreck of the Titanic present a striking contrast. Although fourteen survivors testified that the ship had broken apart as she sank, this testimony was discounted by the official inquiries, and it was supposed that the ship had sunk intact.[87] It is now clear that the stresses on the Titanic caused the ship to split apart between the second and third funnels at or just below the surface.[88] Bow section Model of the bow section wreck The bow section, which measures about 470 feet (140 m) long, is thought to have descended at an angle of about 45°. Its distance from the stern was caused by its planing forward horizontally by about 1 ft for every 6 ft (1 m for every 6 m) of its descent.[89] During the descent to the sea bed, the funnels were swept away, taking with them the rigging and large lengths of cables. These dragged along the boat deck, tearing away many of the davits and much of the other deck equipment.[90] The foremast was also torn down, falling onto the port bridge area. The ship's wheelhouse was swept away, possibly after being hit by the falling foremast.[88] The bow hit the bottom at a speed of about 20 knots (10 metres per second), digging about 60 feet (20 m) deep into the mud, up to the base of the anchors. The impact bent the hull in two places and caused it to buckle downwards by about 10° under the forward well deck cranes and by about 4° under the forward expansion joint. When the bow section hit the sea bed, the weakened decks at the rear, where the ship had broken apart, collapsed on top of each other.[89] The forward hatch cover was also blown off and landed a couple of hundred feet in front of the bow, possibly due to the force of water being pushed out as the bow impacted the bottom.[91] The area around the bridge is particularly badly damaged; as Robert Ballard has put it, it looks "as if it had been squashed by a giant's fist".[92] The roof of the officers' quarters and the sides of the gymnasium appear pushed in, railings were bent outwards and vertical steel columns supporting the decks were bent into a C-shape. Charles R. Pellegrino has proposed that this was the result of a "down-blast" of water, caused by a slipstream that had followed the bow section as it fell towards the sea bed. According to Pellegrino's hypothesis, when the bow came to an abrupt halt the inertia of the slipstream caused a rapidly moving column of water weighing thousands of tons to strike the top of the wreck, striking it near the bridge. This, argues Pellegrino, caused large parts of the bow's interior to be demolished by surges of water and violent eddies kicked up by the wreck's sudden halt.[93] The damage caused by the collision with the iceberg is not visible at the bow as it is buried under mud.[94] Interiors See also: First-class facilities of the Titanic Despite the exterior devastation caused by the bow's descent and collision with the ocean floor, there are parts of the interior in reasonably good condition. The bow's slow flooding and its relatively smooth descent to the sea floor mitigated interior damage. The stairwell of the First-Class Grand Staircase between the Boat Deck and E Deck is an empty chasm within the wreck, providing a convenient point of access for ROVs. Dense rusticles hanging from the steel decking combined with the deep layers of silt that have accumulated in the interior make navigating the wreck disorienting. Passenger staterooms have largely deteriorated because they were framed in perishable softwoods such as pine, leaving hanging electrical wire, light fixtures and debris interspersed with more durable items like brass bed frames, light fixtures, and marble-topped washstands. Woodwork with attachments like doorknobs, drawer-pulls or push-plates have survived in better condition because of the small electric charge emitted by metal which repels fish and other organisms. Hardwoods like teak and mahogany, the material for most stateroom furnishings, are more resistant to decay. Lavatories and bathrooms within the passenger quarters have resisted decay because they were framed in steel. The only intact public rooms remaining in either the stern or bow sections are the First-Class Reception Room and Dining Saloon, both on D-Deck. Most of the Dining Saloon has collapsed because of its proximity to the break-up point midship, but the very forward part is accessible and the rectangular leaded glass windows, table bases, and ceiling lamps are noticeably preserved. The Reception Room with its leaded glass windows and mahogany panelling remains remarkably intact, although the ceiling is sagging and there is a deep layer of silt obstructing the floor.[95][96] The Turkish Baths on F-Deck were found to be in excellent condition during their rediscovery in 2005, preserving the blue-green tiles, carved teak woodwork, and inlaid furniture.[97] The Grand Staircase was likely destroyed during the sinking, but the surrounding first-class foyers and elevator entrances preserve many of the ormolu and crystal lamps, oak timbers, and oak-framed stanchions.[98] In addition to the passenger areas, crew areas like the firemen's mess, dormitories, parts of "Scotland Road" on E-Deck and the cargo holds on the Orlop Deck have also been explored. The Ghosts of the Abyss expedition in 2001 attempted to locate the famed Renault automobile belonging to William Carter, but the cargo was indistinguishable beneath the silt and rusticles.[99] Stern section The stern of the ship, which measures about 350 feet (105 m) long, was catastrophically damaged during the descent and landing on the sea bed. It had not fully filled with water when it sank, and the increasing water pressure caused trapped air pockets to implode, tearing apart the hull. It was loud enough that multiple survivors reported hearing explosions about ten seconds after the stern had sunk beneath the waves.[citation needed] Data from a sonar map made during a 2010 expedition showed that the stern rotated like a helicopter blade as it sank.[100] The rudder appears to have swung over to an angle of about 30 to 45° during the stern's descent, causing the section to follow a tight spiral to the bottom.[101] It probably struck rudder-first, burying most of the rudder in the mud up to a depth of 50 feet (15 m).[102] The decks pancaked one atop another and the hull plating splayed out to the sides of the shattered section.[88] The pancaking is so severe that the combined height of the decks, which are piled up on top of the reciprocating engines, is now generally not more than about 12 to 15 feet (3.7 to 4.6 m) high. No individual deck is more than about 1 foot (30 cm) high.[102] Large sections of the hull plating appear to have fallen off well before the wreck hit the bottom.[103] One such section, thought to have been from the galleys, separated from the stern in one piece and landed nearby.[90] The force of the water tore up the poop deck and folded it back on itself. The centre propeller is totally buried, while the force of the impact caused the two wing propellers and shafts to be bent upwards by an angle of about 20°.[103] A large V-shaped section of the ship just aft of midships, running from the keel upwards through Number 1 Boiler Room and upwards to cover the area under funnel numbers three and four, was believed to have disintegrated entirely when the ship broke up. This was one of the weakest parts of the ship as a result of the presence of two large open spaces – the forward end of the engine room and the aft First Class passenger staircase. The rest of this part of the ship is scattered across the seabed at distances of 130 to 260 feet (40 to 80 m) from the main part of the stern.[104] During the 2010 expedition to map the wreck site, a major chunk of the deck house (the base of the third funnel) along with pieces of the third funnel were found. This showed that instead of simply disintegrating into a mass of debris, large sections of the ship broke off in chunks and that the ship broke in half between funnel numbers two and three, and not funnel numbers three and four. Five of the boilers from Number 1 Boiler Room came loose during its disintegration and landed in the debris field around the stern. Experts believe that this tight cluster of boilers marks the hypocentre of where the ship broke up 12,000 feet above.[105] The rest of the boilers are still presumably located in the bow section.[106] Debris fields As the Titanic broke apart, many objects and pieces of hull were scattered across the sea bed.[105] There are two debris fields in the vicinity of the wreck, each 2,000–2,600 ft (600–800 m) long, trailing in a southwesterly direction from the bow and stern.[6] They cover an area of about 2 sq mi (5 km2).[107] Most of the debris is concentrated near the stern section of the Titanic.[108] It consists of thousands of objects from the interior of the ship, ranging from tons of coal spilled from ruptured bunkers to suitcases, clothes, corked wine bottles (many still intact despite the pressure), bathtubs, windows, washbasins, jugs, bowls, hand mirrors and numerous other personal effects.[109] The debris field also includes numerous pieces of the ship itself, with the largest pieces of debris in the vicinity of the partially disintegrated stern section. It is also believed that the remains of the ship's four funnels are in one of these debris fields.[105] Condition and deterioration of the wreck A rattail, or grenadier fish, typical of the deep-sea fauna around the Titanic Prior to the discovery of the Titanic's wreck, in addition to the common assumption that she had sunk in one piece, it had been widely believed that conditions at 12,000 feet (3,700 metres) down would preserve the ship virtually intact. The water is bitterly cold at only about 1–2 °C (34–36 °F), there is no light, and the high pressure was thought to be likely to lower oxygen and salinity levels to the point that organisms would not be able to gain a foothold on the wreck. The Titanic would effectively be in a deep freeze.[110] The reality has turned out to be very different, and the ship has increasingly deteriorated since she sank in April 1912. Her gradual decay is due to a number of different processes – physical, chemical and biological.[111] She is situated on an undulating, gently sloping area of seabed in Titanic Canyon, which is swept by the western boundary current. Eddies from the current flow constantly across the wreck, scouring the sea bed and keeping sediment from building up over the hull.[94] The current is strong and often changeable, gradually opening up holes in the ship's hull.[112] Salt corrosion eats away at the hull,[111] and it is also affected by galvanic corrosion.[112] The most dramatic deterioration has been caused by biological factors. It used to be thought that the depths of the ocean were a lifeless desert, but research carried out since the mid-1980s has found that the ocean floor is teeming with life and may rival the tropical rainforests for biodiversity.[113] During the 1991 IMAX expedition, scientists were surprised by the variety of organisms that they found in and around the Titanic. A total of 28 species were observed, including sea anemones, crabs, shrimp, starfish, and rattail fish up to a yard (1 m) long.[94] Much larger creatures have been glimpsed by explorers.[114] Some of the Titanic's fauna has never been seen anywhere else; James Cameron's 2001 expedition discovered a previously unknown type of sea cucumber, lavender with a glowing row of phosphorescent "portholes" along its side.[115] A newly discovered species of rust-eating bacterium found on the ship has been named Halomonas titanicae, which has been found to cause rapid decay of the wreck. Henrietta Mann, who discovered the bacteria, has estimated that the Titanic will completely collapse possibly as soon as 2030.[116] The Canadian geophysicist Steve Blasco has commented that the wreck "has become an oasis, a thriving ecosystem sitting in a vast desert".[94] In mid-2016, the facilities of the Institut Laue-Langevin used neutron imaging to demonstrate that a molecule called ectoine is used by Halomonas titanicae to regulate fluid balance and cell volume to survive at such pressures and salinities.[117] Analysis by Henrietta Mann and Bhavleen Kaur, both of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in conjunction with other scientists and researchers of the University of Seville in Spain, has determined that the wreck of the Titanic will not exist by 2037 and that preservation of the Titanic is impossible. "Unfortunately, because Titanic is 2.3 miles (3.7 km) down, it is very difficult or impossible to preserve. It is film which will preserve it for history now," says Mann. "It has already lasted for 100 years, but eventually there will be nothing left but a rust stain on the bottom of the Atlantic... I think Titanic has maybe 15 or 20 years left. I don't think it will have too much longer than that."[118] Other scientists estimated that the Titanic would last no longer than 14 years, as of 2017.[119] The soft organic material aboard and dispersed onto the seabed around the hull would have been the first to disappear, rapidly devoured by fish and crustaceans. Wood-boring molluscs such as Teredo colonised the ship's decks and interior in huge numbers, eating away the wooden decking and other wooden objects such as furniture, panelling, doors and staircase banisters. When their food ran out they died, leaving behind calcareous tubes.[6] The question of the victims' bodies is one that has often troubled explorers of the wreck site. When the debris field was surveyed in Robert Ballard's 1986 expedition, pairs of shoes were observed lying next to each other on the sea bed.[120] The flesh, bones, and clothes had long since been consumed but the tannin in the shoes' leather had apparently resisted the bacteria, leaving the shoes as the only markers of where a body had once lain.[6] Ballard has suggested that skeletons may remain deep within the Titanic's hull, such as in the engine rooms or third-class cabins. This has been disputed by scientists, who have estimated that the bodies would have completely disappeared by the early 1940s at the latest.[121] The molluscs and scavengers did not consume everything organic. Some of the wooden objects on the ship and in the debris field have not been consumed, particularly those made of teak, a dense wood that seems to have resisted the borers.[122] The first-class reception area off the ship's Grand Staircase is still intact and furniture is still visible among the debris on the floor.[123] Although most of the corridors have lost their walls, furniture is still in place in many cabins; in one, a mattress is still on the bed, with an intact and undamaged dresser behind it.[124] Robert Ballard has suggested that areas within the ship or buried under debris, where scavengers may not have been able to reach, may still contain human remains.[125] According to Charles Pellegrino, who dived on the Titanic in 2001, a finger bone encircled by the partial remains of a wedding ring was found concreted to the bottom of a soup tureen that was retrieved from the debris field.[126] It was returned to the sea bed on the next dive.[127] Part of the Titanic wreck in 2003 with rusticles hanging from the hull The longest-lasting inhabitants of the Titanic are likely to be bacteria and archaea that have colonised the metal hull of the ship. They have produced "reddish-brown stalactites of rust [hanging] down as much as several feet, looking like long needle-like icicles", as Ballard has put it. The formations, which Ballard dubbed "rusticles", are extremely fragile and disintegrate in a cloud of particles if touched.[128] The bacteria consume the iron in the hull, oxidising it and leaving rust particles behind as a waste product. To protect themselves from the seawater, they secrete an acidic viscous slime that flows where gravity takes it, carrying ferric oxides and hydroxides. These form the rusticles.[122] When scientists were able to retrieve a rusticle, it was discovered that it was far more complex than had been imagined, with complex systems of roots infiltrating the metal, interior channels, bundles of fibres, pores and other structures. Charles Pellegrino comments that they seem more akin to "levels of tissue organization found in sponges or mosses and other members of the animal or plant kingdoms."[129] The bacteria are estimated to be consuming the Titanic's hull at the rate of 400 pounds (180 kg) per day, which is about 17 pounds (7.7 kg) per hour or 4+1⁄2 ounces (130 grams) per minute. Roy Collimore, a microbiologist, estimates that the bow alone now supports some 650 tons of rusticles,[112] and that they will have devoured 50% of the hull within 200 years.[111] Since the Titanic's wreck was discovered in 1985, radical changes have been observed in the marine ecosystem around the ship. The 1996 expedition recorded 75% more brittle stars and sea cucumbers than Ballard's 1985 expedition, while crinoids and sea squirts had taken root all over the sea bed. Red krill had appeared, and an unknown organism had built numerous nests across the seabed from black pebbles. The number of rusticles on the ship had increased greatly. Curiously, the same thing had happened over about the same timescale to the wreck of the German battleship Bismarck, sunk at a depth of 4,791 metres (15,719 ft) on the other side of the Atlantic. The mud around the ship was found to contain hundreds of different species of animals. The sudden explosion of life around the Titanic may be a result of an increased amount of nutrients falling from the surface, possibly a result of human overfishing, eliminating fish that would otherwise have consumed the nutrients.[130] Many scientists, including Ballard, are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of artefacts are causing the wreck to decay faster. Underwater bacteria have been eating away at the Titanic's steel and transformed it into rust since the ship sank, but because of the extra damage caused by visitors, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that "the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years."[131] The promenade deck has deteriorated significantly in recent years, partly because of damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship. The mast has almost completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light. Other damage includes a gash on the bow section where block letters once spelled Titanic, part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship's wooden wheel is now twisted, and the crow's nest has completely deteriorated.[132] Cameron is responsible for some of the more significant damage during his expedition to the ship in 1995 to acquire footage for his film Titanic two years later. One of the MIR submersibles used on the expedition collided with the hull, damaging both and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. Captain Smith's quarters were heavily damaged by the collapse of the external bulkhead, which exposed the cabin's interior.[133] In 2019 an international survey team reported that the wreck had further deteriorated and that the captain's bathtub was now lost.[134][135] A 2021 expedition reported that the tub was not lost but that the once clear view into it was obstructed by debris.[136] Ownership The Titanic's discovery in 1985 sparked a debate over the ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside and on the sea bed around it. Ballard and his crew did not bring up any artefacts from the wreck, considering such an act to be tantamount to grave robbing. Ballard has since argued strongly "that it be left unmolested by treasure seekers".[137] As Ballard has put it, the development of deep-sea submersibles has made "the great pyramids of the deep .... accessible to man. He can either plunder them like the grave robbers of Egypt or protect them for the countless generations which will follow ours."[138] However, within only two weeks of the discovery, British insurance company the Liverpool and London Steamship Protection and Indemnity Association claimed that it owned the wreck, and several more schemes to raise it were announced.[139] A Belgian entrepreneur offered trips to the Titanic for $25,000 a head.[20] A British man named Douglas Faulkner-Woolley claims ownership of the Titanic, based on a "Late 1960s ruling" by the British Board of Trade which awarded him ownership of the wreck. The wreck had not been discovered at that time.[140] Spurred by Ballard's appeals for the wreck to be left alone, North Carolina Congressman Walter B. Jones Sr. introduced the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act in the United States House of Representatives in 1986. It called for strict scientific guidelines to be introduced to govern the exploration and salvage of the Titanic and urged the United States Secretary of State to lobby Canada, the United Kingdom and France to pass similar legislation. It passed the House and Senate by an overwhelming majority and was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on 21 October 1986.[20] However, the law has been ineffective as the wreck lies outside United States waters, and the Act was set aside by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, Norfolk Division, in 1998.[141] Although negotiations among the four countries were carried out between 1997 and 2000,[142] the resulting "Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic" has been ratified by only the US and the UK.[143] Litigation and controversy Only a few days after Ballard's discovery of the wreck, Jack Grimm—the author of the unsuccessful early 1980s attempts to find the Titanic—claimed ownership of it on the grounds that he had allegedly been the first to find it.[144] He announced that he intended to begin salvaging the wreck. He said that he "[couldn't] see them just lie there and be absorbed by the ocean floor. What possible harm can [salvaging] do to this mass of twisted steel?"[138] Titanic Ventures Inc., a Connecticut-based consortium, co-sponsored a survey and salvage operation in 1987 with the French oceanographic agency IFREMER.[42] The expedition produced an outcry. Titanic survivor Eva Hart condemned what many saw as the looting of a mass grave: "To bring up those things from a mass sea grave just to make a few thousand pounds shows a dreadful insensitivity and greed. The grave should be left alone. They're simply going to do it as fortune hunters, vultures, pirates!"[145] Public misgivings increased when, on 28 October 1987, a television program, Return to the Titanic Live, was broadcast from the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie in Paris, hosted by Telly Savalas.[145] In front of a live TV audience, a valise recovered from the sea bed was opened, revealing a number of personal items apparently belonging to Richard L. Beckwith of New York, who survived the sinking. A safe was also opened, revealing a few items of memorabilia and wet banknotes. The tone of the event was described by one commentator as "unsympathetic, lack[ing] dignity and finesse, and [with] all the superficial qualities of a 'media event'."[42] New York Times television critic John Corry called the event "a combination of the sacred and profane and sometimes the downright silly".[146] Paul Heyer comments that it was "presented as a kind of deep sea striptease" and that Savalas "seemed haggard, missed several cues and at one point almost tripped over a chair". Controversy persisted after the broadcast when claims were made that the safe had been opened beforehand and that the show had been a fraud.[147] Marex-Titanic Inc. was formed in 1992 to launch an expedition to the Titanic. Marex-Titanic's CEO was James Kollar. The company was a subsidiary of Marex International, an international marine salvage firm located in Memphis, Tennessee. In 1992 Marex made a bid to seize control of the artefacts and the wreck itself by suing Titanic Ventures, arguing that the latter had abandoned its claim by not returning to the wreck since the 1987 expedition. It claimed a superior right of salvage based on a "pill bottle" and hull fragment that were said to have been retrieved by Marex.[148] Marex simultaneously sent a vessel, the Sea Mussel, to carry out its own salvage operation.[149] However, the Marex artefacts were alleged to have been illegally retrieved by the 1991 Russian-American-Canadian expedition[148] and Marex was issued with a temporary injunction preventing it from carrying out its plans. In October 1992 the injunction was made permanent and the salvage claims of Titanic Ventures were upheld.[150] The decision was later reversed by an appeals court but Marex's claims were not renewed.[148] Even so, Titanic Ventures' control of the artefacts recovered in 1987 remained in question until 1993 when a French administrator in the Office of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment, Transportation, and Tourism awarded the company title to the artefacts.[151] In May 1993, Titanic Ventures sold its interests in the salvage operations and artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc., a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc. headed by George Tulloch and Arnie Geller.[148] It had to go through a laborious legal process of having itself legally recognised as the sole and exclusive salvager of the wreck. Its claim was opposed for a while by the Liverpool and London Steamship Protection and Indemnity Association, the Titanic's former insurer, but was eventually settled. It was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on 7 June 1994 in a ruling that declared the company to be the "salvor in possession" of the wreck.[152] Litigation has continued over the artefacts in recent years. In a motion filed on 12 February 2004, RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the United States district court enter an order awarding it "title to all the artefacts (including portions of the hull) which are the subject of this action pursuant to the Law of Finds" or, in the alternative, a salvage award in the amount of $225 million. RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from its motion any claim for an award of title to the objects recovered in 1987, but it did request that the district court declare that, based on the French administrative action, "the artifacts raised during the 1987 expedition are independently owned by RMST." Following a hearing, the district court entered an order dated 2 July 2004, in which it refused to grant comity or recognise the 1993 decision of the French administrator, and rejected RMS Titanic Inc.'s claim that it should be awarded title to the items recovered since 1993 under the Maritime Law of Finds.[153] RMS Titanic Inc. appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. In its decision of 31 January 2006 the court recognised "explicitly the appropriateness of applying maritime salvage law to historic wrecks such as that of Titanic" and denied the application of the Maritime Law of Finds. The court also ruled that the district court lacked jurisdiction over the "1987 artifacts", and therefore vacated that part of the court's 2 July 2004 order. In other words, according to this decision, RMS Titanic Inc. has ownership title to the objects awarded in the French decision (valued $16.5 million earlier) and continues to be salvor-in-possession of the Titanic wreck. The Court of Appeals remanded the case to the District Court to determine the salvage award ($225 million requested by RMS Titanic Inc.).[154] On 24 March 2009, it was revealed that the fate of 5,900 artefacts retrieved from the wreck would rest with a U.S. District Judge's decision.[155] The ruling was later issued in two decisions on 12 August 2010 and 15 August 2011. As announced in 2009, the judge ruled that RMS Titanic Inc. owned the artefacts and her decision dealt with the status of the wreck as well as establishing a monitoring system to check future activity upon the wreck site.[156] On 12 August 2010, Judge Rebecca Beach Smith granted RMS Titanic, Inc. fair market value for the artefacts but deferred ruling on their ownership and the conditions for their preservation, possible disposition and exhibition until a further decision could be reached.[157] On 15 August 2011, Judge Smith granted title to thousands of artefacts from the Titanic, that RMS Titanic Inc. did not already own under a French court decision concerning the first group of salvaged artefacts, to RMS Titanic Inc. subject to a detailed list of conditions concerning preservation and disposition of the items.[158] The artefacts can be sold only to a company that would abide by the lengthy list of conditions and restrictions.[158] RMS Titanic Inc. can profit from the artefacts through exhibiting them.[158] RMS Titanic Inc. has also attempted to secure exclusive physical access to the wreck site. In 1996, it obtained a court order finding that it had "the exclusive right to take any and all types of photographic images of the Titanic wreck and wreck site." It obtained another order in 1998 against Deep Ocean Expeditions and Chris Haver, a British Virgin Islands corporation that aimed to run tourist trips to the Titanic at a cost of $32,000 per person[159] (it now[when?] charges $60,000[160]). This was overturned in March 1999 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, which ruled that the law of salvage did not extend to obtaining exclusive rights to view, visit and photograph a wreck. The court pointed out that the Titanic is "located in a public place" in international waters, rather than in a private or controllable location to which access could be restricted by the owner. Granting such a right would also create a perverse incentive; since the aim of salvage is to carry out a salvage operation, leaving property in place so that it could be photographed would run counter to this objective.[161] Conservation issues Pieces of coal retrieved from the Titanic and controversially sold by RMS Titanic Inc. Telly Savalas presenting the much-criticized Return to Titanic Live show on 28 October 1987 RMS Titanic Inc. has attracted considerable controversy for its approach to the Titanic. Two rival camps have formed following the wreck's discovery: the "conservationists", championed by RMS Titanic Inc.'s George Tulloch (who died in 2004), and the "protectionists", whose most prominent advocate is Robert Ballard. The first camp has argued that artefacts from around the wreck should be recovered and conserved, while the latter camp argues that the entire wreck site should have been left undisturbed as a mass grave. Both camps agree that the wreck itself should not be salvaged – though RMS Titanic Inc. did not stick to its proclaimed "hands-off" policy when it managed to demolish the Titanic's crow's nest in the course of retrieving the bell.[47] Its predecessor Titanic Ventures agreed with IFREMER that it would not sell any of the artefacts but would put them on public display, for which it could charge an entry fee.[162] Tulloch's approach has undoubtedly resulted in outcomes that would not have been possible otherwise. In 1991, he presented Edith Brown Haisman, a 96-year-old survivor of the disaster, with her father's pocket watch, which had been retrieved from the sea bed. She had last seen it on 15 April 1912, when he waved goodbye to his wife and daughter as they left aboard lifeboat 14. They never saw him again, and he presumably went down with the ship.[163] The watch was loaned to Haisman "for life"; when she died five years later, it was reclaimed by RMS Titanic Inc.[164] On another occasion, a steamer trunk spotted in the debris field was found to contain three musical instruments, a deck of playing cards, a diary belonging to one Howard Irwin, and a bundle of letters from his girlfriend Pearl Shuttle.[165] It was first thought that Irwin, a musician and professional gambler, had boarded the ship under a false identity. There was no record of him being among the passengers, even though a ticket had been purchased for him. It turned out that he had stayed ashore but his trunk had been brought aboard the ship by his friend Henry Sutehall, who was among the victims of the disaster.[166] The fragile contents of the trunk were preserved by the interior's starvation of oxygen, which prevented bacteria from consuming the paper. Very few other shipwrecks have yielded readable paper.[167] On the other hand, the heavily commercialised approach of RMS Titanic Inc. has caused repeated controversy, and many have argued that salvaging the Titanic is an inherently disrespectful act. The wreck site has been called a "tomb and a reliquary", a "gravestone for the 1,500 people who died" and "hallowed ground".[168] Titanic historians John Eaton and Charles Haas argue that the salvagers are little more than "plunderers and armchair salvage experts" and others have characterised them as "grave robbers".[169] The Return to Titanic... Live! television show in 1987 was widely condemned as a "circus",[170] though the 1987 expedition's scientific and financial leaders had no control over the show.[42] In a particularly controversial episode, RMS Titanic Inc. sold some 80,000 lumps of coal retrieved from the debris field in order to fund the rumoured $17 million cost of lifting the "Big Piece" of the ship's hull.[47] It attempted to get around the no-sale agreement with IFREMER by charging the new owners a $25 "fee" to act as "conservators", in order to claim that the coal lumps had not actually been sold.[170] This attracted strong criticism from all sides.[47] Nonetheless, in 1999 Tulloch was ousted by the company's shareholders and was replaced by Arnie Geller, who promised a more aggressive approach to making a profit. The company declared that it had an "absolute right" to sell recovered gold, coins and currency. It was prevented from doing this by a court order in the United States and IFREMER withdrew its co-operation and its submersibles, threatening a lawsuit.[170] UK and US protection agreement In January 2020, the United Kingdom and United States governments announced that they had agreed to protect the wreckage of the Titanic. The agreement, signed by the British government in 2003, came into effect after being ratified by U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo at the end of 2019. UK Maritime Minister Nus Ghani said the UK would work with Canada and France to bring "even more protection" to the wreckage.[171] Exhibitions of Titanic artefacts Photograph of a brass pocket watch on a stand, with a silver chain curled around the base. The watch's hands read 2:28. Pocket watch retrieved from an unknown victim of the disaster. It had stopped at 02:28, a few minutes after its owner went into the water. Artefacts Objects from the Titanic have been exhibited for many years, though only a few were retrieved before the discovery of the wreck in 1985. The Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax, Nova Scotia, has a collection of wooden fragments and an intact deckchair plucked from the sea by the Canadian search vessels that recovered the victims' bodies.[172] Various other museums, including the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the SeaCity Museum in Southampton, have objects donated by survivors and relatives of victims, including some items that were retrieved from the bodies of victims. More donated Titanic artefacts are to be found in the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool and the Titanic Historical Society's museum in Indian Orchard, Springfield, Massachusetts.[173] The latter's collection includes items such as the life jacket of Madeleine Astor, the wife of millionaire Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV, a rivet which was removed from the hull before the Titanic went to sea, an ice warning which never reached the bridge, a restaurant menu and a sample square of carpet from a First Class stateroom.[174] Exhibitions RMS Titanic Inc. organises large-scale exhibitions around the world of artefacts retrieved from the wreck site. After minor exhibitions were held in Paris and Scandinavia, the first major exhibition of recovered artefacts was held at the National Maritime Museum in 1994–95.[175] It was hugely popular, drawing an average of 21,000 visitors a week during the year-long exhibition.[176] Since then, RMS Titanic Inc. has established a large-scale permanent exhibition of Titanic artefacts at the Luxor hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. The 25,000-square-foot (2,300-square-metre) exhibit is the home of the "Big Piece" of the hull retrieved in 1998 and features conserved items including luggage, the Titanic's whistles, floor tiles and an unopened bottle of champagne.[177] The exhibit includes a full-scale replica of the ship's Grand Staircase and part of the Promenade Deck, and even a mock-up of the iceberg. It also runs a travelling exhibition called Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition which has opened in various cities around the world and has been seen by over 20 million people. The exhibition typically runs for six to nine months featuring a combination of artefacts, reconstructions and displays of the ship, her passengers and crew and the disaster itself. In a similar fashion to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., visitors are given a "boarding pass" in the name of an individual passenger at the start of the exhibition. They do not discover the fate of their assigned passenger until the end.[178] Ownership The vast majority of the relics retrieved by various groups from the Titanic were owned by Premier Exhibitions which operated RMS Titanic Inc. and filed for bankruptcy in 2016. In late August 2018, the groups vying to purchase the 5,500 relics included one by museums in England and Northern Ireland, with assistance from James Cameron and some financial support from National Geographic. Oceanographer Robert Ballard said he favoured this bid since it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast and in Greenwich. A decision as to the outcome was to be made by a United States district court judge in the case titled RMS Titanic Inc., 16-02230, U.S. Bankruptcy Court, Middle District of Florida (Jacksonville).[179][180] On 18 October 2018, a judge approved the sale of artefacts to a private investor group.[181] See also The Big Piece, the largest piece of the Titanic's wreck to be recovered British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea List of archaeological sites beyond national boundaries Footnotes Ballard 1987, p. 249: The coordinates are the centre of the boiler field. Eaton & Haas 1987, p. 130. Wade 1992, p. 72. 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Ballard 1987, p. 190. Rubin, Sydney (1987). "Treasures of the Titanic". Popular Mechanics. 164 (12). New York: Hearst Magazines: 65–69. ISSN 0032-4558. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2011. Ballard 1987, p. 150. Ballard 1987, p. 203. Butler 1998, p. 214. Mone 2004. Handwerk 2010. Broad 1995. Pellegrino 2012, p. 83. Pellegrino 2012, p. 274. BBC News 2010. Augenstein, Seth (6 September 2016). "'Extremophile Bacteria' Will Eat Away Wreck of the Titanic by 2030". Laboratory Equipment. CompareNetworks. Archived from the original on 7 September 2016. NewsCore (8 January 2015). "Titanic Wreck Being Eaten by Superbug, Will Disappear in 20 Years". Fox News. FOX News Network, LLC. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2019. Fox-Skelly, Jasmin (5 February 2018). "The wreck of the Titanic is being eaten and may soon vanish". BBC Earth. BBC. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2017. Ballard 1987, p. 192. Spignesi 2012, p. 242. Ballard 1987, p. 208. Pellegrino 2012, p. 84. Pellegrino 2012, p. 102. Spignesi 2012, p. 240. Pellegrino 2012, p. 198. Pellegrino 2012, p. 199. Ballard 1987, p. 122. Pellegrino 2012, p. 200. Pellegrino 2012, pp. 53–54. Crosbie & Mortimer 2006, p. last page (no page number specified). Ballard 2004. Eaton & Haas 1999, p. 205. Morelle, Rebecca (21 August 2019). "Titanic sub dive reveals parts are being lost to sea". BBC News. Archived from the original on 6 January 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2019. Webster, Ben. "Titanic dive: Captain's bath lost for ever as ocean eats away at wreck". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2020. Hurley, Bevan (18 October 2021). "Titanic's famous captain's bathtub reappears, as wreck's rapid disintegration revealed in new footage". Independent. Retrieved 24 July 2023. Lynch 1992, p. 13. Eaton & Haas 1987, p. 148. R.M.S. Titanic, Inc., etc. v. The Wrecked And Abandoned Vessel, Its Engines, Tackle, Apparel, Appurtenances, Cargo, Etc., Located Within One (1) Nautical Mile Of A Point Located At 41 43 32 North Latitude And 49 56 49 West Longitude, Believed To Be The R.M.S. Titanic, 2:93-cv-00902, (E.D. Va.) Spignesi, Stephen (20 February 2012). "An Expanded Interview with Douglas Faulkner-Woolley". Stephen Spignesi. Archived from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2020. For an overall discussion of the history of the salvage legal proceedings, see R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. Haver, 171 F.3d 943 (4th Cir. Va. 1999), and related opinions. Scovazzi 2003, p. 64. NOAA 2012. Ferguson 1985. Lynch 1992, p. 208. Eaton & Haas 1999, p. 195. Heyer 1995, p. 5. Eaton & Haas 1994, p. 313. Associated Press 1992. Taylor 1992. "RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial of Preservation Act of 2007" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2010. Scovazzi 2003, pp. 65–66. "Salvage Law Update Fall 2004" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2010. "United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, R.M.S. Titanic, Incorporated vs. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel – 31 January 2006" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011. ( 127 KiB ) White, Marcia (24 March 2009). "Battle continues on fate of relics from doomed ship Titanic". The Express-Times. Archived from the original on 23 February 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012. "Federal judge to rule on fate of Titanic artifacts". USA Today. 24 March 2009. Archived from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2012. McGlone, Tim (14 August 2010). "Norfolk judge grants salvage award for Titanic artifacts". The Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012. McGlone, Tim (16 August 2011). "Norfolk judge awards rights to Titanic artifacts". The Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012. Scovazzi 2003, p. 67. Spignesi 2012, p. 260. Scovazzi 2003, p. 68. Riding 1992. Butler 1998, p. 218. Jorgensen-Earp 2006, p. 62. Pellegrino 2012, p. 207. Pellegrino 2012, p. 209. Pellegrino 2012, p. 205. Jorgensen-Earp 2006, p. 45. Jorgensen-Earp 2006, p. 46. Jorgensen-Earp 2006, p. 48. "RMS Titanic wreck to be protected under UK and US agreement". BBC News. BBC. 21 January 2020. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020. Lynch 1992, pp. 178–179. Ward 2012, pp. 248, 251. Kelly 2009. Portman 1994. Stearns 1995. Spignesi 2012, p. 259. Ward 2012, pp. 252–253. "Florida Middle Bankruptcy Court Case 3:16-bk-02230 – RMS Titanic, Inc. -". app.courtdrive.com. Archived from the original on 2 September 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018. Dawn McCarty; Jef Feeley; Chris Dixon (31 August 2018). "Bankrupt Titanic exhibitor sets biggest sale of ship relics". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 2 September 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018. Alicia McElhaney (22 October 2018). "Investor Group Including Apollo Acquires Titanic Artifacts". Institutional Investor. Archived from the original on 10 August 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2021. Sources Books Ballard, Robert D. (1987). The Discovery of the Titanic. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 978-0-446-51385-2. Ballard, Robert (1988). Exploring the Titanic. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 0590419528. Ballard, Robert D.; Hively, Will (2002). The Eternal Darkness: A Personal History of Deep-Sea Exploration. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09554-7. Ballard, Robert D. (2008). Archaeological Oceanography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12940-2. Butler, Daniel Allen (1998). Unsinkable: The Full Story of RMS Titanic. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-1814-1. Crosbie, Duncan; Mortimer, Sheila (2006). Titanic: The Ship of Dreams. New York, NY: Orchard Books. ISBN 978-0-439-89995-6. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1987). Titanic: Destination Disaster: The Legends and the Reality. Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens. ISBN 978-0-85059-868-1. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1999). Titanic: A Journey Through Time. Sparkford, Somerset: Patrick Stephens. ISBN 978-1-85260-575-9. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1994). Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy. Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens. ISBN 978-1-85260-493-6. Estes, James A. (2006). Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24884-7. Gibson, Allen (2012). The Unsinkable Titanic: The Triumph Behind A Disaster. Stroud, Glos.: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-5625-6. Halpern, Samuel; Weeks, Charles (2011). "Description of the Damage to the Ship". In Halpern, Samuel (ed.). Report into the Loss of the SS Titanic: A Centennial Reappraisal. Stroud, UK: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6210-3. Heyer, Paul (1995). Titanic Legacy: Disaster as Myth and Event. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-95352-2. Hicks, Brian; Kropf, Schuyler (2002). Raising the Hunley: the remarkable history and recovery of the lost Confederate submarine. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-44771-5. Jorgensen-Earp, Cheryl R. (2006). "Satisfaction of Metaphorical Expressions through Visual Display". In Prelli, Lawrence J. (ed.). Rhetorics of display. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-619-4. Lord, Walter (1987). The Night Lives On. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-81452-7. Lynch, Don (1992). Titanic: An Illustrated History. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-56282-918-6. Lynch, Don; Marschall, Ken (2003). Ghosts of the Abyss. New York: Madison Press Books. ISBN 0306812231. MacInnis, Joseph B.; Cameron, James (2005). James Cameron's Aliens of the Deep. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-0-7922-9343-9. Parisi, Paula (1998). Titanic and the Making of James Cameron. New York: Newmarket Press. ISBN 978-1-55704-364-1. Pellegrino, Charles (2012). Farewell, Titanic: Her Final Legacy. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-87387-8. Scovazzi, Tullio (2003). "The Application of "Salvage Law and Other Rules of Admiralty"". In Garabello, Roberta; Scovazzi, Tullio (eds.). The protection of the underwater cultural heritage: before and after the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-411-2203-2. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2006). Principles of Physics: A Calculus-Based Text, Volume 1. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-49143-7. Spignesi, Stephen (2012). The Titanic For Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-20651-5. Suid, Lawrence H. (1996). Sailing on the Silver Screen: Hollywood and the U.S. Navy. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781557507877. Wade, Wyn Craig (1992). The Titanic: End of a Dream. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-016691-0. Ward, Greg (2012). The Rough Guide to the Titanic. London: Rough Guides Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4053-8699-9. Journal and news articles Ballard, Robert D. (December 2004). "Why is Titanic Vanishing?". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2011. Broad, William A. (17 October 1995). "The World's Deep, Cold Sea Floors Harbor a Riotous Diversity of Life". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017. Canfield, Clarke (8 March 2012). "Full Titanic site mapped for 1st time". The Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2012. Cohen, Jennie (8 March 2012). "First Map of Entire Titanic Wreck Site Sheds New Light on Disaster". History.com. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012. Ferguson, Jonathan (4 September 1985). "Texas oilman says he found Titanic first – 'it's my wreck'". The Toronto Star. Gannon, Robert (February 1995). "What Really Sank the Titanic". Popular Science. p. 54. Handwerk, Brian (18 August 2010). "Titanic Is Falling Apart". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2012. Kelly, Ray (27 October 2009). "Titanic salvage raises concerns". The Republican. Springfield, MA. Little, Crispin T. S. (February 2010). "The Prolific Afterlife of Whales". Scientific American. 302 (2): 78–84. Bibcode:2010SciAm.302b..78L. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0210-78. PMID 20128227. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2010. Mone, Gregory (July 2004). "What's Eating the Titanic?". Popular Science: 42. Portman, Jamie (12 November 1994). "U.K. Titanic exhibit an off-season draw". The Toronto Star. Riding, Alan (16 December 1992). "1,800 Objects From the Titanic: Any Claims?". The New York Times. Stearns, David Patrick (17 May 1995). "Relics display shows interest in Titanic hasn't sunk". USA Today. Stephenson, Parks (20 September 2005). Titanic Wreck Observations 2005 (Report). Marine Forensic Panel. Taylor, Joe (2 October 1992). "Texas Oilman Seeking Titanic Artifacts Loses Case". The Associated Press. "Ariadne". New Scientist: 64. 6 October 1977. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023. "Press: Suddenly, Now! Is Never". Time. 11 May 1981. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2023. "Memphian Seeks Titanic Salvage". The Associated Press. 30 September 1992. "New species of bacteria found in Titanic 'rusticles'". BBC News. 6 December 2010. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2012. Symonds, Matthew (April 2012). "Titanic: The archaeology of an emigrant ship". Current Archaeology (265): 14. Online publications Marschall, Ken (December 2001). "James Cameron's Titanic Expedition 2001: What We Saw On and Inside the Wreck". marconigraph.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2017. "RMS Titanic International Agreement". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 29 February 2012. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2012. "R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2003". NOAA. 8 June 2010. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2012. "R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2004". NOAA. 27 February 2012. Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2012. "The Titanic Story: Timeline For 2000". Titanic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2012. "The Titanic Story: Timeline For 2001". Titanic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2012. "The Titanic Story: Timeline For 2004". Titanic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2012. Further reading Ballard, Robert D. (December 1985). "How We Found Titanic". National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 168, no. 6. pp. 696–719. Ballard, Robert D. (December 1986). "A Long Last Look at Titanic". National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 170, no. 6. pp. 698–727. Ballard, Robert D. (October 1987). "Epilogue for Titanic". National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 172, no. 4. pp. 454–463. External links Media related to Titanic wreck at Wikimedia Commons "Investigating the Titanic (Full Episode) / Drain the Oceans" (video). youtube.com. National Geographic. 28 January 2023. "Scan of Titanic reveals wreck as never seen before - BBC News" (video). youtube.com. BBC News. 17 May 2023. vte Titanic First class facilities Second and Third class facilities Grand Staircase Animals aboard Sinking Iceberg that sank the Titanic Changes in safety practices Lifeboats Lifeboat No. 1 British inquiry United States inquiry Wreck of the Titanic Legends and myths Conspiracy theories Deck officers Edward J. Smith (Captain) Henry Tingle Wilde (Chief Officer) William McMaster Murdoch (First Officer) Charles H. Lightoller (Second Officer) Herbert Pitman (Third Officer) Joseph G. Boxhall (Fourth Officer) Harold G. Lowe (Fifth Officer) James Paul Moody (Sixth Officer) Joseph Bell (Machine Room Manager) Crew members Frederick Barrett Harold Bride William Denton Cox Sid Daniels Frank Oliver Evans Frederick Fleet Luigi Gatti Robert Hichens Violet Jessop Archie Jewell Charles Joughin Reginald Lee Evelyn Marsden William Mintram Jack Phillips Frank Winnold Prentice Arthur John Priest George Symons Musicians Wallace Hartley John Wesley Woodward Passengers Fatalities Allison family Thomas Andrews John Jacob Astor IV David John Bowen Archibald Butt Thomas Byles Roderick Chisholm Walter Donald Douglas Annie Funk Jacques Futrelle Sidney Leslie Goodwin Benjamin Guggenheim John Harper Henry B. Harris Wallace Hartley Charles Melville Hays Ann Elizabeth Isham Edward Austin Kent Joseph Philippe Lemercier Laroche Francis Davis Millet Harry Markland Molson Clarence Moore Eino Viljami Panula Emily Ryerson W. T. Stead Ida Straus Isidor Straus John B. Thayer Frank M. Warren Sr. George D. Wick George Dunton Widener Harry Elkins Widener Duane Williams George Henry Wright Survivors Rhoda Abbott Trevor Allison Lillian Asplund Madeleine Astor Ruth Becker Lawrence Beesley Karl Behr Dickinson Bishop Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson Elsie Bowerman Francis Browne Margaret "Molly" Brown Helen Churchill Candee Charlotte Drake Cardeza Lucile Carter Gladys Cherry Millvina Dean Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon Dorothy Gibson Archibald Gracie IV Frank John William Goldsmith Edith Haisman Henry S. Harper Eva Hart Margaret Bechstein Hays Masabumi Hosono J. Bruce Ismay Eleanor Ileen Johnson Louise Kink Louise Laroche Margaret Mannion Michel Marcel Navratil Alfred Nourney Arthur Godfrey Peuchen Jane Quick Winnifred Quick Edith Rosenbaum Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes Emily Ryerson Agnes Sandström Beatrice Sandström Frederic Kimber Seward Eloise Hughes Smith Jack Thayer Marian Thayer Barbara West Ella Holmes White R. Norris Williams Marie Grice Young Monuments and memorials Australia Bandstand (Ballarat) United Kingdom Engine Room Heroes (Liverpool) Engineers (Southampton) Musicians (Southampton) Titanic (Belfast) Orchestra (Liverpool) United States Straus Park (New York City) Titanic (New York City) Titanic (Washington, D.C.) Butt–Millet Memorial Fountain (Washington, D.C.) Popular culture (cultural legacy) Books The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility (1898) A Night to Remember (book) Polar the Titanic Bear Films Saved from the Titanic (1912) In Nacht und Eis (1912) La hantise (1912) Atlantic (1929) Atlantik (1929) Titanic (1943) Titanic (1953) A Night to Remember (1958) The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1964) Raise the Titanic (1980) Secrets of the Titanic (1986) Titanica (1992) Titanic (1997) The Chambermaid on the Titanic (1997) The Legend of the Titanic (1999) Titanic: The Legend Goes On (2000) The Boy Who Saw the Iceberg (2000) Ghosts of the Abyss (2003) Tentacolino (2004) Titanic II (2010) The Six (2021) Titanic 666 (2022) Unsinkable (2024) Television "A Night to Remember" (1956) S.O.S. Titanic (1979) Titanic: The Complete Story (1994) Titanic (1996 miniseries) No Greater Love (1996) "A Flight to Remember" (Futurama) (1999) Titanic (2012 miniseries) Titanic: Blood and Steel (2012) Saving the Titanic (2012) Titanic: The Aftermath (2012) Theater The Berg (1929) The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960 musical) Titanic (1974) Titanic (1997 musical) Music "The Titanic (It Was Sad When That Great Ship Went Down)" (folk song) The Sinking of the Titanic (music composition) Titanic (soundtrack album) Back to Titanic (soundtrack album) "My Heart Will Go On" (song) "Nearer, My God, to Thee" (song) Titanique (musical parody) "Dance Band on the Titanic" (song) "Titanic" (song) Titanic Requiem (music composition) "Tempest" (song) Titanic Rising (album) Video games Search for the Titanic (1989) Titanic: Adventure Out of Time (1996) Titanic: Honor and Glory (TBA) Museums and exhibitions SeaCity Museum (Southampton) Titanic Museum (Branson, Missouri) Titanic Museum (Pigeon Forge, Tennessee) Maritime Museum of the Atlantic (Halifax) Titanic Belfast Places Titanic (Canada) Titanic Canyon Titanic Quarter, Belfast Cape Race, Newfoundland Fairview Lawn Cemetery Mount Olivet Cemetery (Halifax, Nova Scotia) Arrol Gantry Titanic, Oklahoma Related Ships RMS Baltic RMS Olympic HMHS Britannic SS Mount Temple RMS Carpathia SS Californian CS Mackay-Bennett SS Birma SS Frankfurt Replica Titanic Titanic II Romandisea Titanic Law RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic Others White Star Line David Blair Harold Cottam Herbert Haddock Stanley Lord Arthur Rostron Titanic Historical Society Titanic International Society Encyclopedia Titanica Halomonas titanicae Women and children first Robert Ballard La Circassienne au Bain Titan submersible implosion Category vte Titan submersible implosion Titan Incident Victims Stockton Rush Tourists Paul-Henri Nargeolet Hamish Harding Shahzada and Suleman Dawood Related OceanGate Wreck of the Titanic Search and retrieval Horizon Arctic ROV Odysseus 6K Categories: RMS Titanic1911 ships1912 disasters in Canada1912 disasters in the United Kingdom1985 archaeological discoveriesHistory of Halifax, Nova ScotiaShips sunk by icebergsShipwrecks of the Newfoundland and Labrador coastWreck diving sites Top 10 Historic Ships of All Time By Soumyajit Dasgupta June 5, 2024 Maritime History Ships have evolved over centuries, from the primitive hollowed-out logs to Roman Triremes, wind-driven ships and advanced nuclear-powered supercarriers. However, some vessels have made history by fighting great naval battles or suffering a tragic fate as a consequence. These vessels have had a lasting impact on people and will be remembered for centuries to come. This article discusses 10 such historic ships. historic ships Representation image 1. RMS Titanic Undisputedly the most famous ship in maritime history, to encounter the most tragic event is this luxury cruise from the British White Star Line. On its maiden voyage on April 10, 1912, from Southampton to New York, it struck an iceberg and sank in the North Atlantic, failing to evacuate about 1500 passengers onboard. Rediscovered in 1985, this historic ship, with its equally historic tale, has become the inspiration for a multitude of documentaries and the backdrop for one of the most successful Hollywood movies in 1999. 2. U.S.S. Arizona This historic ship is associated with probably the most tragic World War II consequence. On December 7, 1941, the surprise attack by the Japanese tore it apart and killed 1,177 crew members out of 1,400, including the captain and an admiral. U.S.S. Arizona Image credits: Wikipedia The ignition at its forward magazine had left it burning for days. The wreck was beyond any repair and remained there as a paradigm of a war memorial. 3. Bismarck With a length of 823 feet and a top speed of 30 knots, this giant historic ship was undoubtedly the largest and fastest warship afloat in 1941 to have struck a terror at the heart of the British Navy. Bismarck Image credits: Wikipedia After inflicting enough damage to the British fleet of battleships, it was sunk at the bottom of the sea. However, after it was recovered in 1989, it was indicated that it might have been scuttled rather than sunk by the British. 4. U.S.S. Maine This has gone into the history of ships as one of the most remembered vessels with an unforgettable fate. On Feb 15, 1985, while anchored in the shallow waters near Havana Harbour, it was blown by an explosion. Though the reason remains unknown, it took the lives of over 260 sailors onboard. USS Marine Image credits: Wikipedia Since then, it had become a suspect of an intentional act of sabotage which might have triggered a pre-placed mine and thus sparked a war between the United States and Spain. Later in 1911, the ship’s remains were recovered from the harbour to clear the passage for marine navigation. 5. HMS Victory Victory is considered one of the largest wooden warships ever built to serve the Spanish fleet in the last decades of the eighteenth century. HMS Victory Image credits: Wikipedia After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it was ordered to be scrapped but coincidentally became a pier-side training school. In 1922, the British government restored it and it began serving as a museum in Portsmouth, England, as one of the oldest ships still afloat in maritime history. 6. U.S.S. Missouri Popularly known as the ‘Mighty Mo’, this is one significant name in the history of ships as surrender documents that announced the end of World War II were signed on it in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. U.S.S. Missouri Image credits: Wikipedia After that, this historic ship participated in the Korean War and was one of the famous ships in Ronald Reagan’s 600-ship fleet plan in 1984. Later in 1991, it was used against Iraqi targets in Kuwait in the First Persian Gulf War for launching cruise missiles and 16-inch rounds from the massive guns. This antique ship serves as a museum and war memorial at Pearl Harbour. 7. U.S.S. Constitution The “Old Ironsides” Constitution is better known for its sturdy construction and is still afloat after 213 years, today serving as a museum in Boston, Massachusetts, since 1907. The significant battles it fought were the First Barbary War and the War of 1812, where it thwarted the British frigates HMS Guerriere and HMS. U.S.S. Constitution Image credits: Wikipedia It has been restored, renovated and otherwise rebuilt numerous times over the decades, and the only part that remains constant is its keel. Currently, this antique ship tows into the Boston Harbour once every year for its turnaround cruise. 8. U.S.S. Monitor and C.S.S. Virginia (aka Merrimack) These two old ships are famous for their hours-long battle in Hampton Roads, Virginia, in March 1862. The Union-built Monitor is considered the first ship to have installed a rotating gun turret, which was built upon the Union frigate Merrimack’s refloated hull. U.S.S. Monitor and C.S.S. Virginia (aka Merrimack) Image credits: Wikipedia In May 1862, Virginia was blown up before surrendering while the Monitor went down in heavy seas off Cape Hatteras with 16 crew members on New Year’s Eve. The wreck of the Monitor was found in 1973 and is now a national landmark at the Mariners’ Museum of Newport News, Virginia. 9. C.S.S. Hunley Built by the Confederates in 1863, this revolutionary vessel, in regards to naval engineering, was designed to sink Union Navy ships and block Southern ports but unfortunately sank twice in the testing process, killing 13 of the crew. C.S.S. Hunley Image credits: Wikipedia On February 17, 1864, this historic ship triggered a spar torpedo on the Union sloop Housatonic and made it sink, which earned Hunley the distinction of being the first submarine to bury a ship. After a wait of 136 years on the bottom of Charleston Harbour, it is now a specially designed tank awaiting conservation since August 2000. 10. The La Santa María or La Gallega No individual can deny the fame of this tiny (about 70 feet long), slow-paced, hideous Spanish Ship for its concern with Christopher Columbus and his discovery of a new world, which has earned this vessel a permanent place in the history of ships. La Santa María Image credits: Wikipedia On Christmas Day, 1492, this sturdy little historic ship was run aground and salvaged for wood which was later used to construct another famous ship named La Navidad. Even though four replicas of this antique ship have been built ever since none are the exact duplicates. Hence the original configuration remains unknown. You might also like to read- Top 10 Biggest Ice Breaker Ships In The World In 2024 10 Biggest Tanker Ships In the World Titanic’s Sister Ships – What Do You Know About Them? Top 10 Biggest RORO Ships In The World

• Condition: New
• Artist: Titanic
• Unit of Sale: Single Piece
• Signed By: Not Signed
• Size: Small
• Item Length: 30mm
• Region of Origin: New York, USA
• Format: Bar
• Unit Type: Unit
• Year of Production: 2012
• Original/Licensed Reproduction: Original
• Item Height: 43mm
• Style: Art Deco
• Features: Titanic
• Unit Quantity: 1
• Handmade: No
• Item Width: 3mm
• Culture: Titanic
• Time Period Produced: 2010-2019
• Signed: Yes
• Title: Titanic Gold Bar
• Period: Contemporary (1970 - 2020)
• Material: Metal
• Certificate of Authenticity (COA): No
• Subject: Titanic, USA
• Type: Sculpture
• COA Issued By: None
• Theme: Films
• Production Technique: 3D Modeling
• Country/Region of Manufacture: United States

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